Women came slowly to medicine and anesthesia. The first modern woman physician, Elizabeth Blackwell, received her degree in 1849. The University of Zurich Medical School enrolled women in 1867. To increase their opportunities, American women founded 17 medical schools and 7 hospitals in the 19th century, but the move to scientific medicine prompted by the Flexner Report caused closure of all but one after 1910. Men avoided anesthesia because it offered minimal pay and status in the 19th century, but that presented an opening for women such as Herb in Chicago and Botsford in San Francisco at the turn of the century. In 1916, women constituted 19% of the American Association of Anesthetists (AAA) membership, but only 3.6% of physicians were women.

A History of Women in American Anesthesiology

Dr. Virginia Apgar and the Apgar Score: How the Apgar Score Came to Be.

Virginia Apgar (1909-1974).

Thematic or topical philately deals with stamp collection based on a particular topic or theme. This article deals with a thematic depiction of the history of anesthesia from ancient to modern times using stamps, postal stationery and cancellations.

A philatelic history of anesthesiology

ence. At a time when few women even attended college [1] , she was determined to be a doctor [2] . In September 1929, she entered the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University. In dire fi nancial diffi culties at the time of the stock market crash, Apgar had to borrow money from family friends. She graduated in 1933, fourth in her class, a member of Alpha Omega Alpha Society, and nearly $4,000 in debt [2] . She won a prized surgical internship at Columbia [3] , where she performed brilliantly. But Alan Whipple, chairman of surgery, discouraged her because so many women surgeons had failed to succeed fi nancially in a male-dominated specialty that was competitive and overcrowded [3] . Whipple, recognising her ability, persuaded her to train in anaesthesiology, then often performed by nurses. Neurologists often are asked to advise about epilepsy, infant and childhood cerebral handicap, their aetiology, treatment and prognosis. A crucial factor in assessment has been the Apgar score to assess the neonatal condition that may be relevant to later neurological damage. Dr. Apgar developed the 10-point scoring system ( table 1 ) in 1952 to focus attention on neonates in the fi rst critically precarious minutes of life. A low score immediately signalled the need for emergency attention.

/pdf/virginia-apgar-1909-1974-neurological-evaluation-of-the-4o811zzrs7.pdf

Virginia Apgar (1909-1974): neurological evaluation of the newborn infant.

Virginia Apgar: a woman physician's career in a developing specialty.

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Virginia Apgar: a woman physician's career in a developing specialty.