Summary
This paper discusses raw materials used in ancient glasses. Following a consideration of some archaeological reasons for studying glass, the discussion concentrates on the evidence provided by chemical analysis of the glass, and focuses on glass from later prehistoric Western Europe. Consideration of the major, minor and trace components of the glass leads to a conclusion that prehistoric glass artisans were able closely to control the addition of small quantities of colorants, opacifiers and clarifiers to the glass melt. Some possible ways of introducing such small quantities of these substances are suggested. A related implication is that glass production in prehistoric Europe was a mainly specialist industry, being part of a ‘high-status’socio-economic sphere. When interpreting technical analyses a full consideration of the socio-economic niche occupied by the glass industry is urged.

The raw materials of early glass production

The chemical analysis of excavated glass fragments from dated archaeological contexts in Raqqa, Syria, has provided a detailed picture of the chemical compositions of artefacts deriving from eighth to ninth and 11th century glassmaking and glassworking activities. Evidence for primary glass production has been found at three excavated sites, of eighth to ninth, 11th and 12th century dates; the first two are discussed here. The 2 km long industrial complex at al-Raqqa was associated with an urban landscape consisting of two Islamic cities (al-Raqqa and al-Rafika) and a series of palace complexes. The glass fused and worked there was presumably for local as well as for regional consumption.

Al-Raqqa currently appears to have produced the earliest well-dated production on record in the Middle East of an Islamic high-magnesia glass based on an alkaline plant ash flux and quartz. An eighth to ninth century late ‘Roman’/Byzantine soda–lime recipe of natron and sand begins to be replaced in the eighth to ninth century by a plant ash – quartz Islamic soda–lime composition. By the 11th century, this process was nearly complete. The early Islamic natron glass compositional group from al-Raqqa shows very little spread in values, indicating a repeatedly well-controlled process with the use of chemically homogeneous raw materials.

A compositionally more diffuse range of eighth to ninth century plant ash glass compositions have been identified. One is not only distinct from established groups of plant ash and natron glasses, but is believed to be the result of experimentation with new raw material combinations. Compositional analysis of primary production waste including furnace glass (raw glass adhering to furnace brick) shows that contemporary glasses of three distinct plant ash types based on various combinations of plant ash, quartz and sand were being made in al-Raqqa during the late eighth to ninth centuries. This is a uniquely wide compositional range from an ancient glass production site, offering new insights into the complexity of Islamic glass technology at a time of change and innovation.

Radical changes in islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle islamic raqqa, syria *

Obsidian has long been recognized as an indicator of long-distance, maritime-based exchange networks in the Neolithic central and western Mediterranean. Earlier studies have identified and chemically characterized the major island sources, but few subsequent efforts have been directed at determining the provenance of significant numbers of artifacts from secure archaeological contexts. This paper presents new interpretations of obsidian procurement and distribution based on the chemical and visual sourcing of more than 2700 artifacts from island and mainland sites in France and Italy, and discusses the spatially and temporally dynamic economic and social role of obsidian. Finally, it is suggested that long-distance prestige exchange of obsidian and other materials was an important way of maintaining ethnic or kin connections in increasingly sedentary Neolithic societies.

Obsidian Procurement and Distribution in the Central and Western Mediterranean

Chemical fingerprinting using major or trace element composition is used to characterize the Mediterranean island sources of obsidian and can even differentiate as many as nine flows in the Monte Arci region of Sardinia. Analysis of significant numbers of obsidian artifacts from Neolithic sites in the central Mediterranean reveals specific patterns of source exploitation and suggests particular trade mechanisms and routes. The use of techniques such as X-ray fluorescence, the electron microprobe, neutron activation analysis, and laser ablation ICP mass spectrometry are emphasized in order to produce quantitative results while minimizing damage to valuable artifacts.

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Chemical fingerprinting and source tracing of obsidian: the central Mediterranean trade in black gold.

PXRF characterisation of obsidian from central Anatolia, the Aegean and central Europe

The magnetic sourcing of obsidian samples from Mediterranean and Near-Eastern sources

Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis of 1st millennium ad glass from Britain

The distribution and sources of archaeological obsidian from southern France

The application of Mössbauer spectroscopy to the characterisation of western mediterranean obsidian

The TL properties of archaeological glass

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