Over the last decade, 3D bioprinting has received immense attention from research communities for developing functional tissues. Thanks to the complexity of tissues, various bioprinting methods have been exploited to figure out the challenges of tissue fabrication, in which hydrogels are widely adopted as a bioink in cell printing technologies based on the extrusion principle. Thus far, there is a wealth of literature proposing the crucial parameters of extrusion-based bioprinting of hydrogel biomaterials (e.g., hydrogel properties, printing conditions, and tissue scaffold design) toward enhancing performance. Despite the growing research in this field, numerous challenges that hinder advanced applications still exist. Herein, the most recently reported hydrogel-based bioprinted scaffolds, i.e., skin, bone, cartilage, vascular, neural, and muscular (including skeletal, cardiac, and smooth) scaffolds, are systematically discussed with an emphasis on the advanced fabrication techniques from the tissue engineering perspective. The methods covered include multiple-dispenser, coaxial, and hybrid 3D bioprinting. The present work is a unique study to figure out the opportunities of the novel techniques to fabricate complicated constructs with structural and functional heterogeneity. Finally, the principal challenges of current studies and a vision of future research are presented.

/pdf/recent-progress-in-extrusion-3d-bioprinting-of-hydrogel-h2upbumxyq.pdf

Recent progress in extrusion 3D bioprinting of hydrogel biomaterials for tissue regeneration: a comprehensive review with focus on advanced fabrication techniques

Bioprinting for the Biologist.

Recent advances in polysaccharide-based self-healing hydrogels for biomedical applications.

This paper demonstrates a new class of printable magnetic hydrogels that can be successfully used for multimaterial direct ink printing (4D printing) of soft actuators. To date, most reports on magnetic actuation have not considered biocompatibility issues associated with magnetic materials and synthetic polymers. For this reason, in this study, considerable attention was given to developing bionanocomposites that exhibit noncytotoxicity and biocompatibility and hence may be used in biomedical applications. Three inks with various concentrations of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were used to print 3D objects, such as tubes (wheels), cubes, and cantilevers. The interactions between MNPs and hydrogel precursor network accounted for excellent shear thinning properties of the inks. Usually, hydrogel actuators move or change a shape upon anisotropic swelling and deswelling, possible only in an aqueous environment. Our study addresses this challenge by incorporating magnetic nanoparticles into the hydrogel, allowing for contactless in-air control of hydrogel motion. Because of the high structural integrity of the hydrogel, we can state that multimaterial direct ink printing is an excellent method for obtaining a 3D construct of high resolution, shape fidelity, tunable distribution of MNPs, and induced macroscopic anisotropy. The magnetic hydrogels are not only highly porous and noncytotoxic towards fibroblasts but also exhibit good mechanical stability and unique magnetic responsiveness. The simple approach allowed us to fabricate different magnetic actuators with various patterns, composed of magnetic and non-magnetic materials. The results demonstrate the interplay between magnetic and nonmagnetic hydrogels that influences the actuation performance of multimaterial objects, as illustrated by magnetically induced rolling, jumping, and bending. It was shown that programmable patterning of the hydrogels leads to the development of macroscopically anisotropic magnetic material. Our study confirmed that the intersection of 4D printing of magnetically responsive hydrogel materials and programmable patterning promises to fulfil future soft robotics' biocompatibility and functionality requirements.

4D printing of patterned multimaterial magnetic hydrogel actuators

Bioprinting is an emerging powerful fabrication method, which enables the rapid assembly of 3D bioconstructs with dispensing cell-laden bioinks in pre-designed locations. However, to translate this technology into real applications, there are still a number of challenges that need to be addressed. First, the current inks are generally composed of polymeric materials with poor electrical conductivity that mismatches with the native tissue environment. The second challenge associated with the 3D bioprinting of hydrogel-based bioinks is the fabrication of anatomical-size constructs without any loss of shape fidelity and resolution. To address these challenges, in this work, we introduced a biocompatible bioink associated with current 3D bioprinting by combining methylcellulose and kappa-carrageenan (MC/κCA) hydrogels with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) conducting polymers. The prepared ink exhibited highly thixotropic behaviour, which could be tuned via changing the concentration of MC and κCA to obtain easy printing with high shape fidelity. The ink was able to fabricate physiological-scale constructs without requiring a secondary support bath. In addition, varying the concentration of PEDOT:PSS could control the electrical conductivity of the ink. Moreover, the encapsulated human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK-293) cells in bulk hydrogels and 3D bioprinted structures maintained high cell viability (>96%) over a week, confirming the in vitro biocompatibility of the ink. Overall, these findings indicate that the MC/κCA/PEDOT:PSS bioink can be promising in biomedical applications, which improved the electroconductivity of bioinks and can exploit the advantage of conductive polymers in the 3D bioprinting technology.

https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2020/tb/d0tb00627k

3D printing of cell-laden electroconductive bioinks for tissue engineering applications.

With the aid of biofabrication, cells can be spatially arranged in three dimensions, which offers the opportunity to guide tissue maturation in a better way compared to traditional tissue engineering approaches. A prominent technique allowing biofabrication of tissue equivalents is extrusion-based 3D (bio)printing, also called 3D (bio)plotting or robocasting, which comprises cells embedded in the biomaterial (bioink) during the fabrication process. First bioprinting studies introduced bioinks allowing either good cell viability or good shape fidelity. Concepts enabling printing of cell-laden constructs with high shape fidelity were developed only rarely. Recent studies showed the great potential of the polysaccharide methylcellulose (mc) as supportive biomaterial that can be utilized in various ways to enable biofabrication and especially extrusion-based bioprinting of bioinks. This minireview highlights the multiple applications of mc for biofabrication: it was successfully used as sacrificial ink to enable 3D shaping of cell sheets or biomaterial inks as well as as internal stabilizing component of various bioinks. Moreover, a brief overview about first bioprinted functional tissue equivalents is given, which have been fabricated by using mc. Based on these studies, future research should consider mc as an auxiliary material for bioinks and biofabricated constructs with high shape fidelity.

/pdf/methylcellulose-a-versatile-printing-material-that-enables-3lvlvhlc70.pdf

Methylcellulose – a versatile printing material that enables biofabrication of tissue equivalents with high shape fidelity

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Methylcellulose – a versatile printing material that enables biofabrication of tissue equivalents with high shape fidelity