Lignin-derivatives based polymers, blends and composites: A review

Currently, most carbon aerogels are made of carbon nanotubes or graphene through a catalyst-assisted chemical vapor deposition method. Biomass based organic aerogels and carbon aerogels, featuring low cost, high scalability, and small environmental footprint, represent an important new research direction in (carbon) aerogel development. Cellulose and lignin are the two most abundant natural polymers in the world, and the aerogels based on them are very promising. Classic silicon aerogels and available organic resorcinol–formaldehyde (RF) or lignin–resorcinol–formaldehyde (LRF) aerogels are brittle and fragile; toughening of the aerogels is highly desired to expand their applications. This study reports the first attempt to toughen the intrinsically brittle LRF aerogel and carbon aerogel using bacterial cellulose. The facile process is catalyst-free and cost-effective. The toughened carbon aerogels, consisting of blackberry-like, core-shell structured, and highly graphitized carbon nanofibers, are able to undergo at least 20% reversible compressive deformation. Due to their unique nanostructure and large mesopore population, the carbon materials exhibit an areal capacitance higher than most of the reported values in the literature. This property makes them suitable candidates for flexible solid-state energy storage devices. Besides energy storage, the conductive interconnected nanoporous structure can also find applications in oil/water separation, catalyst supports, sensors, etc.

Flexible, highly graphitized carbon aerogels based on bacterial cellulose/lignin: Catalyst-free synthesis and its application in energy storage devices

Processing and characterization of low-cost electrospun carbon fibers from organosolv lignin/polyacrylonitrile blends

Lignin is an aromatic polymer that makes up 15–30% of the cell walls of terrestrial plants. While lignin's role in facilitating water transport through the vasculature, providing rigidity and acting as a defense against pests and pathogens is important for the plant's survival, industries that process plant biomass for the production of biofuels and bio-based chemicals have historically primarily been interested in the cell wall polysaccharides, especially cellulose. Consequently, lignin is generated in large quantities as a by-product that is often burned to generate heat and electricity, or that is used in low-value applications. It is becoming clear that, rather than treating it as waste, lignin is very suitable for the production of enhanced composites, carbon fibers, and nanomaterials, which offers both economic and environmental benefits. This review highlights recent uses of these polymers as adsorbents, flocculants, adhesives, anti-oxidants, energy storing films, and vehicles for drug delivery and gene therapy. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015, 132, 42069.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/app.42069

Recent developments in polymers derived from industrial lignin

Lignin is a phenolic natural polymer, second only to cellulose. It can be extracted from lignocellulosic biomass through various chemical, physical, mechanical, and enzymatic treatments. The chemical structure and properties of the extracted lignin are mainly depended on the extraction method, vegetal species, location, season, etc. Based on the separation method, several types of lignin, also called technical lignin, could be obtained, including alkali lignin/kraft lignin, lignosulfonate, organosolv lignin, milled wood lignin (MWL), klason lignin, and hydrolytic lignin. The separation conditions can influence the cross-linked structure and molecular weight distributions of the technical lignin products. By far, lignin is mainly regarded waste or by-product streams from paper pulping mills and cellulosic ethanol plants with a limited application for heat and power generation. However, the abundant availability and unique structure of lignin make it a potential feedstock for the synthesis of biochemicals and biopolymers such as surfactants/dispersants, carbon fibers, phenolic resins, epoxy resins, and polyurethane resins, etc.

Conversion of Lignin into Bio-Based Chemicals and Materials

Porous core-shell carbon fibers derived from lignin and cellulose nanofibrils

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Porous core-shell carbon fibers derived from lignin and cellulose nanofibrils