This paper discusses visual search theories that explain how humans search for objects on maps. A mapreading experiment considered variations in visual search processes ref ated to searching for targets with unique features and mrgets that share features with other objects. Experimental objects differing in colour, shape, size, and orientation were constructed. The importance of these characteristics was evaluated, as was the effect of the location of the target on the map. The time needed to find a target in a display and the proportion of incorrect decisions were measures of efficiency in spatialsearch studies. The most efficient spatial searches occur when targeu 'pop out' of the map. These searches use parallel processes and are indicated bv reaction times being independent of the number of symbols on the map. 'Pop-out' effecu occur when targets have some unique charact~ristics that distinguish them from other symbols. Results indicated that 'pop-out' effects could he produced by colour differences be...

Visual Search Processes Used in Map Reading

A map can be thought of as an expression of a cartographer’s ideas, a device for storing spatial information and a source of knowledge for the map reader. Maps are two- or three-dimensional spatial structures that represent some part of the environment and communicate information about the environment. Maps differ from photographs of the environment in that someone has organized the spatial data and represented it as spatial information to be communicated. A number of visual search studies have been conducted with maps that have focused on map symbols, locations with particular colours, and boundaries with particular colours. Understanding how spatial knowledge is learned from maps and stored in long-term memory is a challenging research topic. It would seem reasonable to assume that things already know might help us learn new things more effectively. The information encoded into the artificial cognitive map related to population, employment, race, politics, income, and regional location.

Understanding and learning maps

Searching is a fundamental but complex task in the map-reading process. Several psychologists have explored the role of visual search in cognition, and have proposed a number of models that may offer cartographers a basis for understanding how people search for specific map information. The purpose of this research was to examine the visual search process used by map readers when interacting with bivariate choropleth maps, and to assess the potential of one of psychology's models, Attentional Engagement Theory, for explaining that process. The study employed a standard search task that determined the efficiency of the search process by having subjects search for target colours among non-target colours across a map. An analysis of reaction times showed that the following variables affected search efficiency: target colour, the total number of objects on the map, and similarity of the target colour to all other non-target colours on the map.

/pdf/colour-detection-on-bivariate-choropleth-maps-the-visual-5mzwxtzc9d.pdf

Colour Detection on Bivariate Choropleth Maps: The Visual Search Process

This study reviews the major theories of visual search processes and applies some of their concepts to searching for multivariate point symbols in a map environment. The act of searching a map for information is a primary activity undertaken during map-reading. The complexity of this process will vary, of course, with symbol design and map content. Multivariate symbols, for example, will be more difficult to search for efficiently than univariate symbols. The purpose of this research was to examine the cognitive processes used by map readers when searching for multivariate point symbols on a map. The experiment used Chernoff Faces as the test symbol, and a symbol-detection task to assess how accurately and how efficiently target symbols composed of different combinations of facial features could be detected. Of particular interest was assessing the role that different combinations of symbol dimensions and different combinations of symbol parts played in moderating search efficiency. Subject reaction times and error rates were used to evaluate the efficiency of the searches. Results suggested all searches employed serial search processes, although feature searches (those in which a target symbol consists of a unique feature) were by far the easiest for subjects to complete. It was also demonstrated that hierarchical relationships could be manipulated within symbols to increase search efficiency for searches in which the target does not have a unique feature (conjunctive search).

/pdf/visual-search-processes-and-the-multivariate-point-symbol-3wf0g1hvdg.pdf

Visual Search Processes and the Multivariate Point Symbol

This study investigated visual search for simple and complex geometric and pictorial point symbols displayed on light and dark smooth and textured map backgrounds. Groupadministered tests asked subjects to count occurrences of target symbols. Efficiency of visual search was determined by analyzing subjects’ self-recorded counts and times for accuracy and speed. Results for symbols indicate that simple geometric and pictorial symbols are easier to search, especially when their shapes differ considerably. In contrast, complex geometric and pictorial symbols differing only in minor details of shape or orientation are harder to search. Results for backgrounds show that high value contrast between symbol and background (e.g. black symbol on white ground) facilitates search, while low contrast (e.g. black symbol on dark gray ground) yields poorer results. Since subjects also found it harder to identify symbols displayed on textured backgrounds (e.g. aerial photograph, satellite image, or relief shading), visual noise is another background factor.

The Perceptual Interaction of Simple and Complex Point Symbol Shapes and Background Textures in Visual Search on Tourist Maps

The purpose of this research was to examine the interaction between color and the visual processes people use to search choropleth maps. Two experiments were performed in which subjects searched hy...

Searching for Boundaries on Maps: Cognitive Processes

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Searching for Boundaries on Maps: Cognitive Processes