: A review of both laboratory and field studies on the effect of setting goals when learning or performing a task found that specific, challenging goals led more often to higher performance than easy goals, 'do your best' goals or no goals. This is one of the most robust and replicable findings in the psychological literature, with 90% of the studies showing positive or partially positive results. The main mechanisms by which goals affect performance are by directing attention, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and motivating strategy development. Goal setting is most likely to improve task performance when the goals are specific and sufficiently challenging, when the subjects have sufficient ability (and ability differences are controlled), when feedback is provided to show progress in relation to the goal, when rewards such as money are given for goal attainment, when the exerimenter manager is supportive, and when the assigned goals are actually accepted by the individual. No reliable individual differences have emerged in goal setting studies, probably because goals were typically assigned rather than self-set. Need for achievement and self esteem may be the most promising individual difference variables. (Author)

https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.125

Goal setting and task performance: 1969–1980.

Studies of employee turnover are reviewed using meta-analytic techniques. The findings indicate that almost all of the 26 variables studied relate to turnover. The findings also indicate that study variables including population, nationality, and industry moderate relationships between many of the variables and turnover. It is suggested that future research on employee turnover: (1) report study variables, (2) continue model testing rather than simply correlating variables with turnover, and (3) incorporate study variables into future models.

Employee Turnover: A Meta-Analysis and Review with Implications for Research

: The following points are developed. First, mediation relations are generally thought of in causal terms. Influences of an antecedent are transmitted to a consequence through an intervening mediator. Second, mediation relations may assume a number of functional forms, including nonadditive, nonlinear, and nonrecursive forms. Special attention is given to nonadditive forms, or moderated mediation, where it is shown that while mediation and moderation are distinguishable processes, a particular variable may be both a mediator and a moderator within a single set of functional relations. Third, current procedures for testing mediation relations in industrial and organizational psychology need to be updated because these procedures often involve a dubious interplay between exploratory (correlational) statistical tests and causal inference. It is suggested that no middle ground exists between exploratory and confirmatory (causal) analysis, and that attempts to explain how mediation processes occur require well-specified causal models. Given such models, confirmatory analytic techniques furnish the more informative tests of mediation. (Author)

/pdf/mediators-moderators-and-tests-for-mediation-4gscoivdpu.pdf

Mediators, Moderators, and Tests for Mediation.

Age-Related Differences in Work Attitudes and Behavior: A Review and Conceptual Analysis

Wendelien Van Eerde University of Amsterdam Henk Thierry University of Tilburg This meta-analysis integrates the correlations of 77 studies on V. H. Vroom's (1964) original expectancy models and work-related criteria. Correlations referring to predic- tions with the models and the single components--valence, instrumentality, and expec- tancy-were included in relation to 5 types of criterion variables: performance, effort, intention, preference, and choice. Within-subjects correlations and between-subjects cor- relations were included separately. Overall, the average correlations were somewhat lower than reported in previous narrative reviews. In certain categories, moderators pertaining to the measurement of the concepts were analyzed with a hierarchical linear model, but these moderators did not explain heterogeneity. The results show a differentiated over- view: the use of the correlational material for the validity of expectancy theory is discussed. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) has held a major position in the study of work motivation. Vroom's (1964) Valence - Instrumentality - Expectancy Model (VIE model), in particular, has been the subject of numerous empirical studies. It has served as a rich source for theo- retical innovations in domains such as organizational be- havior (Naylor, Pritchard, & Ilgen, 1980), leadership (House, 1971), and compensation (Lawler, 1971). Re- views on expectancy theory (Mitchell, 1974, 1982; Pritchard & Campbell, 1976; Schwab, Olian-Gottlieb, & Heneman, 1979; Wanous, Keon, & Latack, 1983) ad- dressed several conceptual and empirical problems and gave important suggestions for future research. Recent publications show a revived interest in ex- pectancy theory as it relates to training motivation (Mathieu, Tannenbaum, & Salas, 1992), turnover (Summers & Hendrix, 1991 ), productivity loss in group performance (Shepperd, 1993), self-set goals (Tubbs, Boehne, & Dahl, 1993), goal commitment (Klein & Wright, 1994; Tubbs, 1993), and goal level (Mento, Wendelien Van Eerde, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Henk Thierry, Department of Human Resource Sciences, University of Til- burg, Tilburg, The Netherlands. We thank Joop Hox, Nathalie Allen, Bob Pritchard, Sabine Sonnentag, and Carsten de Dreu. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Wendelien Van Eerde, Department of Psychology, Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 15, l018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Electronic mail may be sent via Internet to ao__eerde@ macmail.psy.uva.nl. Locke, & Klein, 1992 ). Also, some argue that expectancy theory should be combined with other motivation theo- ries (e.g., Kanfer, 1987; Kernan & Lord, 1990; Klein, 1989; Landy &Becker, 1990). Therefore, it is important to establish the validity of expectancy theory. Does 30 years of research support its main tenets? Is the theory still "promising," though not firmly supported empiri- cally, such as earlier reviews seem to conclude? Is it useful to combine expectancy theory with other approaches, and, if so, how should this be done? Many different interpretations, operationalizations, application purposes, and methods of statistical analysis have been used. To make a comparison and combination of the results possible, we referred to Vroom's basic models and their components. The objective of this arti- cle is to analyze the literature on expectancy theory sys- tematically and to integrate the empirical results meta- analytically. We did so in order to establish the relation between expectancy theory and work-related criterion variables. Landy and Becker (1990) suggested that the key to im- proving the predictions of the expectancy model might lie in variables such as the number of outcomes, valence of outcomes, and the particular dependent variable cho- sen for study. Schwab et al. (1979) examined the rela- tionship between the VIE model and two criterion vari- ables, effort and performance. They included several moderators of this relationship in 32 between-subject studies in a statistical analysis. The current article pro- vides a partial update of their findings. In addition, stud- ies with components of the VIE model, that is, valence, instrumentality, expectancy, and

pdf/vroom-s-expectancy-models-and-work-related-criteria-a-meta-xb9d3ndvlf.pdf

Vroom's Expectancy Models and Work-Related Criteria: A Meta-Analysis

: This report summarizes the second phase of a longitudinal study of individual and organizational causes and correlates of attrition among first term enlisted personnel in the U.S. Marine Corps. Pre-recruit training values, reward expectations, expected leadership, job content, and group climate and demographic variables are analyzed in terms of their relation to recruit training attrition. (Author)

An Analysis of Recruit Training Attrition in the U.S. Marine Corps

: This report summarizes the first phase of a longitudinal study of individual and organizational causes and correlates of attrition among first term enlisted personnel in the U.S. Marine Corps: Pre-recruit training values, reward expectations, expected leadership, job content, and group climate are described. Behavioral intentions and the correlates of these intentions are analyzed. The attraction of Marine and Civilian Roles are compared.

Pre-Recruit Training Values, Expectations, and Intentions of Marine Corps Recruits

Center for Management and Organizational ResearchUniversity of South CarolinaA role choice model, which included attraction, expectancy, and intention in-dexes for both civilian and military roles, was used to analyze the recruittraining turnover behavior of 1,521 male Marine Corps recruits. Demographic,expected leadership, and expected job content were also measured at thebeginning of recruit training. It was found that on the way into recruit training,subsequent graduates and dropouts differed significantly on 20 of 29 variables,including intention to complete their enlistments, expectancy of completingtheir enlistments, attraction to the Marine role, and a number of other expectedorganizational and demographic variables. When the variables were subjectedto stepwise multiple regression, a multiple R of .30 was observed for 11-weekrecruit training attrition, with expectancy of completing, education, Marinerole outcome expectancies, expectancy of finding an acceptable civilian role,and intention to complete being the first five variables to enter the equation.The results support the usefulness of moving beyond demographic predictionof attrition, including perception and evaluation of alternative roles, and ex-ploring more closely the organizational entry process.Recent reviewers of the literature on em-ployee turnover (Forrest, Cummings, & John-son, 1977; Locke, 1976; Mobley, Griffeth,Hand, & Meglino, in press; Porter & Steers,1973; Price, 1977) have observed the needfor better developed conceptual models of theturnover process. Macro-level studies of therelationships between general economic indi-cators, such as level of unemployment, andaggregate turnover rates add little to thepsychology of individual withdrawal behavior.At the micro level, the frequently replicatedcorrelations between job dissatisfaction andturnover and between turnover and demo-graphic and other univariate correlates donot account for sizeable amounts of varianceand provide a conceptually incomplete basis

Conceptual and empirical analysis of military recruit training attrition.

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An Analysis of Recruit Training Attrition in the U.S. Marine Corps

Pre-Recruit Training Values, Expectations, and Intentions of Marine Corps Recruits

Conceptual and empirical analysis of military recruit training attrition.