Studies of the causes of fertility levels and their changes often seek to measure directly the impact of socioeconomic factors on fertility. Such procedures have a broad appeal to policymakers, offering as they do to pinpoint mechanisms susceptible to manipulation by official policy. Despite this appeal, such approaches are considerably more problematical in their application. Not infrequently, relationships are found to differ not only in magnitude but even in direction in different settings and at different times. Substantial insights can be gained if, in addition to the socioeconomic factors influencing fertility, the specific mechanisms through which these factors operate are identified. For example, the level of education of women is a socioeconomic indicator that is frequently found to be negatively related to fertility. A more detailed analysis may show that among educated women marriage is relatively late or the use of contraception more frequent, thus clarifying the relationship between education and fertility. In general, the biological and behavioral factors through which socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental variables affect fertility are called intermediate fertility variables. The primary characteristic of an intelmediate fertility variable is its direct influence on fertility. If an intermediate fertility variable, such as the prevalence of contraception, changes, then fertility necessarily changes also (assuming the other intermediate fertility variables remain constant), while this is not necessarily the case for an indirect determinant such as income or education. Consequently, fertility

A framework for analyzing the proximate determinants of fertility

Endocrine factors in the etiology of postpartum depression

PROLACTIN constitutes part of the luteotrophic complex necessary for the maintenance and secretory activity of the corpus luteum in the rat1,2, mouse3, rabbit4, hamster5, ferret6, pig7 and sheep8. Recent evidence suggests, however, that prolactin may have little to do with luteal function in women9–15. Nevertheless, it is still possible that prolactin could play a ‘permissive’ role, as in other species, where alterations in peripheral blood levels, within limits, have little effect on luteal activity. In an attempt to gain more insight into the possible role of prolactin in controlling ovarian activity in women, we have studied the production of steroids by human granulosa cells growing in tissue culture, and the effects of the addition or neutralisation of human prolactin in the culture media. We report that the production of progesterone by human granulosa cells in vitro requires low physiological concentrations of prolactin whereas high concentrations are inhibitory.

A possible role for prolactin in control of steroid secretion by the human Graafian follicle

Consensus statement on the use of breastfeeding as a family planning method

We consider why and how women track their menstrual cycles, examining their experiences to uncover design opportunities and extend the field's understanding of personal informatics tools. To understand menstrual cycle tracking practices, we collected and analyzed data from three sources: 2,000 reviews of popular menstrual tracking apps, a survey of 687 people, and follow-up interviews with 12 survey respondents. We find that women track their menstrual cycle for varied reasons that include remembering and predicting their period as well as informing conversations with healthcare providers. Participants described six methods of tracking their menstrual cycles, including use of technology, awareness of their premenstrual physiological states, and simply remembering. Although women find apps and calendars helpful, these methods are ineffective when predictions of future menstrual cycles are inaccurate. Designs can create feelings of exclusion for gender and sexual minorities. Existing apps also generally fail to consider life stages that women experience, including young adulthood, pregnancy, and menopause. Our findings encourage expanding the field's conceptions of personal informatics.

https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3025453.3025635

Examining Menstrual Tracking to Inform the Design of Personal Informatics Tools

First ovulation after childbirth: The effect of breast-feeding☆

Dr. Potter is a professor in the Department of Sociology at Brown University and a research associate at the Population Studies Center of the University of Michigan. An earlier draft of this paper was presented at the Symposium on Statistical Problems of Population Research at the East-West Center, Honolulu, 3-6 August 1971. A subsequent version appeared in mimeo as "Working Paper No. 13" in the Taiwan Population Series which is based on collaborative work between the Population Studies Center and the Taiwan Institute of Family Planning. The writer gratefully acknowledges support received from the Ford Foundation and the Population Council and the programming assistance of Mrs. C. Keiper.

Additional births averted when abortion is added to contraception.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/160/3830/848.full.pdf

Taiwan's Family Planning Program Large-scale family planning programs may be more effective than is sometimes believed

In the mass family planning programs found in an increasing number of developing countries more and more attention is being given to the problems of maintaining high levels of continuing use of contraception, once it is adopted. Previously, interest was concentrated on influencing large numbers of couples to begin contraception. Many of these programs have relied on the new intrauterine contraceptive device (IUD) as the principal method offered. The assumption usually made initially was that continuation rates would not be a great problem since the new devices theoretically could remain in place for years and required no recurrent decision for use. Only discontinuation required a decision. It soon became apparent in Taiwan and elsewhere that, despite its many advantages, the IUD was not a perfect contraceptive and that many couples were terminating use. Only a very small proportion of terminations were due to pregnancies; a larger share resulted from involuntary expulsions, and the greatest proportion everywhere was the result of voluntary removals. Although some women discontinued use of the IUD to have a child, most voluntary removals were made at the request of the patients who complained of minor side effects such as excess bleeding, headaches and back-

Correlates of IUD termination in a mass family planning program. The first Taiwan IUD follow-up survey.

Robert G. Potter, Ronald Freedman, Lien-Ping Chow ticipate are still practicing birth control and preventing many births some years after having entered the program; (iv) the women participants are having many fewer children after entry into the program than they had previously, and many fewer than they might be expected to have if their fertility is about average for married women in Taiwan. This article is devoted to a selective documentation of these points.

Taiwan??s family planning program

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Robert G. Potter

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