Bovine coronaviruses, like other animal coronaviruses, have a predilection for intestinal and respiratory tracts. The viruses responsible for enteric and respiratory symptoms are closely related antigenically and genetically. Only 4 bovine coronavirus isolates have been completely sequenced and thus, the information about the genetics of the virus is still limited. This article reviews the clinical syndromes associated with bovine coronavirus, including pneumonia in calves and adult cattle, calf diarrhea, and winter dysentery; diagnostic methods; prevention using vaccination; and treatment, with adjunctive immunotherapy.

https://www.vetfood.theclinics.com/article/S0749-0720(09)00101-7/pdf

Bovine coronavirus associated syndromes.

Calves are born and raised in a wide diversity of environments and housing conditions, all of which affect the risk of neonatal enteric infectious disease. At one extreme are calves born in closed-beef cow–calf operations under low-density conditions on open range, such as in the low-rainfall areas of the Intermountain United States. This environment closely resembles the conditions in which the infectious agents and their hosts co-evolved before domestication. In this setting, the risk of introducing new strains of infectious agents is low, direct contact among calves is minimized, the opportunity for transmission by people and equipment is minimal, and fecal material is dispersed and exposed to environmental factors (i.e., insects, desiccation, and ultraviolet radiation) that inactivate most microorganisms. At the other exposure extreme, calves are raised in enclosed housing on continuous-flow, custom calf-raising operations. In this environment, calves are assembled from multiple herds and from sales channels in which the risk of heavy exposure to a variety of infectious agents is high. Calves are often in direct contact with one another, the physical space per calf is limited, and the risk of transmission by people and equipment is high. If housed, ventilation is often inadequate, resulting in a high relative humidity; fecal material is concentrated, with a high moisture content and without full exposure to direct sunlight. Vermin such as flies and rodents are often present in high numbers, and nutrition is provided by assembled feedstuffs of varying quality and nutritional value rather than from dam’s milk. Between these two extremes are calves raised in individual hutches on dairies of their origin or beef calves raised in intensively managed rotational grazing systems in high-rainfall areas. Vet Clin Food Anim 18 (2002) 7–34

/pdf/biosecurity-for-neonatal-gastrointestinal-diseases-35oitr2aw8.pdf

Biosecurity for neonatal gastrointestinal diseases

A 2-week-old Morgan filly examined because of lameness of 5 days' duration was found, on the basis of clinical and radiographic findings, to have septic physitis of the distal end of the radius. The foal was treated by means of intraosseous regional perfusion with penicillin and amikacin and systemic administration of antimicrobials. Intraosseous regional perfusion was performed 3 times. The foal was anesthetized for the first episode of intraosseous regional perfusion, but was only sedated for the subsequent 2 episodes. Antimicrobials were administered systemically for 22 days. Foals with septic physitis are typically considered to have a guarded to poor prognosis for recovery; however, this treatment regimen resulted in relatively fast and uncomplicated resolution of the infection in this foal.

Intraosseous regional perfusion for treatment of septic physitis in a two-week-old foal.

Neonatal morbidity and mortality are major economic concerns in both beef and dairy cattle in the United States. In both beef and dairy most calf death occurs in the early neonatal period, particularly in calves born following dystocia. This article focuses on the resuscitation of calves after delivery and highlights some therapeutic points for the care of critical calves.

Resuscitation and Critical Care of Neonatal Calves

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of three resuscitation procedures on respiratory and metabolic adaptation to extra-uterine life during the first 24 h after birth in healthy newborn calves. Twenty-four newborn calves were randomly grouped into four categories: six calves did not receive any specific resuscitation procedure and were considered as controls (C); six received pharyngeal and nasal suctioning immediately after birth by use of a hand-powered vaccum pump (SUC); six received five litres of cold water poured over their heads immediately after birth (CW) and six were housed in a calf pen with an infrared radiant heater for 24 h after birth (IR). Calves were examined at birth, 5, 15, 30, 45 and 60 min, 2, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h after birth and the following measurements were recorded: physical and clinical examination, arterial blood gas analysis, pulmonary function tests using the oesophageal balloon catheter technique, arterial and venous blood acid-base balance analysis, jugular venous blood sampling for determination of metabolic, haematological and passive immune transfer variables. SUC was accompanied by improved pulmonary function efficiency and by a less pronounced decrease in body temperature. The “head shaking movement” and the subsequent temporary increase in total pulmonary resistance as well as the greater lactic acidosis due to CW were accompanied by more efficient, but statistically non-significant, pulmonary gas exchanges. IR allowed maintenance of higher body temperature without requiring increased catabolism of energetic stores. IR also caused a change in breathing pattern which contributed to better distribution of the ventilation and to slightly improved gas exchange. The results indicate that use of SUC, CW and IR modified respiratory and metabolic adaptation during the first 24 h after birth without side-effects. These resuscitation procedures should be recommended for their specific indication, i.e. cleansing of fetal fluid from upper airways, hypothermal stimulation of breathing and prevention of heat losses.

Effect of three resuscitation procedures on respiratory and metabolic adaptation to extra uterine life in newborn calves.

This article contains a brief overview of the magnitude and causes of perinatal calf mortality (PCM). A PATH model chart of the risk factors of PCM is presented as a foundation for preparation of herd-management programs to prevent PCM, for herd investigations to control excessive PCM, or to plan seminars for livestock producers on control of PCM. The financial impact of PCM is explored through discussions of expenses associated with PCM, management decisions after calf deaths, and a comparison of the financial losses of PCM with losses incurred through pregnancy failure.

The incidence, causes, and financial impact of perinatal mortality in North American beef herds

The veterinarian is in a unique position to assist and improve the profitability of producers by educating clients on proper intervention and delivery techniques. This paper describes some procedures for intervention, evaluation, and management of dystocia by mutation, forced extraction, and fetotomy. In addition, a brief summary of the factors influencing dystocia is presented. When these techniques are used properly, losses due to dystocia are minimized.

Abnormal bovine parturition. Obstetrics and fetotomy.

An epidemiologic approach to solving beef herd production and disease problems

Food animal veterinarians recognize the need to economically justify their recommendations regarding whole-herd management programs. An enterprise analysis technique may be used by veterinarians to determine the actual cost of production on beef cattle operations. Enterprise analysis was used on 2 groups of cattle to demonstrate the financial impact of a recommendation to modify the winter-supplementation program of a large ranch. Pregnancy rates improved from 62 to 95% for group-1 cattle and from 75 to 94% for 2 groups of cattle in the 2-year study. Additionally, the calving cycle was shortened and the number of calves born earlier in the calving season was notably increased, which raised the total pounds of calves sold at weaning. These outcomes were realized without additional winter-supplementation expenses for either group. Veterinarians can use enterprise analysis to determine the value of their recommendations, thus allowing them to charge more appropriately for the services provided.

Enterprise analysis: a method to evaluate alternative production and management practices for cow/calf operations.

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The incidence, causes, and financial impact of perinatal mortality in North American beef herds

Abnormal bovine parturition. Obstetrics and fetotomy.

An epidemiologic approach to solving beef herd production and disease problems

Enterprise analysis: a method to evaluate alternative production and management practices for cow/calf operations.