Functional anatomy of the basal ganglia. I. The cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop

Flipped classroom approaches remove the traditional transmissive lecture and replace it with active in-class tasks and pre-/post-class work. Despite the popularity of these approaches in the media, Google search, and casual hallway chats, there is very little evidence of effectiveness or consistency in understanding what a flipped classroom actually is. Although the flipped terminology is new, some of the approaches being labelled ‘flipped’ are actually much older. In this paper, we provide a catch-all definition for the flipped classroom, and attempt to retrofit it with a pedagogical rationale, which we articulate through six testable propositions. These propositions provide a potential agenda for research about flipped approaches and form the structure of our investigation. We construct a theoretical argument that flipped approaches might improve student motivation and help manage cognitive load. We conclude with a call for more specific types of research into the effectiveness of the flipped classroom ...

/pdf/motivation-and-cognitive-load-in-the-flipped-classroom-1jlqqq0tt6.pdf

Motivation and cognitive load in the flipped classroom: definition, rationale and a call for research

Although the mammalian basal ganglia have long been implicated in motor behavior, it is generally recognized that the behavioral functions of this subcortical group of structures are not exclusively motoric in nature. Extensive evidence now indicates a role for the basal ganglia, in particular the dorsal striatum, in learning and memory. One prominent hypothesis is that this brain region mediates a form of learning in which stimulus-response (S-R) associations or habits are incrementally acquired. Support for this hypothesis is provided by numerous neurobehavioral studies in different mammalian species, including rats, monkeys, and humans. In rats and monkeys, localized brain lesion and pharmacological approaches have been used to examine the role of the basal ganglia in S-R learning. In humans, study of patients with neurodegenerative diseases that compromise the basal ganglia, as well as research using brain neuroimaging techniques, also provide evidence of a role for the basal ganglia in habit learning. Several of these studies have dissociated the role of the basal ganglia in S-R learning from those of a cognitive or declarative medial temporal lobe memory system that includes the hippocampus as a primary component. Evidence suggests that during learning, basal ganglia and medial temporal lobe memory systems are activated simultaneously and that in some learning situations competitive interference exists between these two systems.

Learning and memory functions of the Basal Ganglia.

Dopamine and the regulation of cognition and attention

In her book, Learner-Centered Teaching, Maryellen Weimer contrasts the practices of teachercentered college teaching and student-centered college teaching in terms of (1) the balance of power in the classroom, (2) the function of the course content, (3) the role of the teacher versus the role of the student, (4) the responsibility of learning, (5) the purpose and processes of evaluation. She then gives some suggestions on how to implement the learner-centered approach. Using Weimer’s five specifications, it has been possible to identify from the pedagogical literature several examples where college teachers are seeking to move toward more student-centered classrooms. This essay reports on innovations used by teachers across the academic and professional spectrum, as well as on their evaluations of their successes.

/pdf/student-centered-learning-in-higher-education-386aupy9cu.pdf

Student-Centered Learning in Higher Education

We investigated whether an active learning approach, facilitated by a personal response system, would lead to improved student engagement and learning outcomes in large-group physiology lectures for undergraduate science students. We focused on encouraging students' active learning in lectures, whereas previous studies have made more use of audience response technology during lectures for formative or summative assessment. Students voluntarily answered questions posed during lectures with their personal response system (clickers), with individual answers automatically collated for immediate histogram display. This feedback then dictated the focus of followup discussions in the lecture. Student and instructor attitudes were surveyed through voluntary interviews with student responses correlated with their degree of clicker participation and individual exam results. Active lectures were found to increase both student motivation and engagement. Students who participated in answering questions achieved better results than students who chose not to. Students with the lowest scores in a prerequisite course (previous semester physiology exam marks of 75%) entry students. Significant improvement was evident in both mid- and end-semester exam results compared with student cohorts from preceding years, although this could also be influenced by many other factors. Increased student engagement and the immediate feedback obtained during lectures were advantages commonly noted by lecturing staff.

Promoting student-centered active learning in lectures with a personal response system

Anatomy of the System - Interconnections, Inputs And Outputs.- Interconnections Between the Corpus Striatum and Brain Stem Nuclei.- Thalamostriate Projections - an Overview.- The Primate Striato-Pallido-Nigral System: An Integrative System for Cortical Information.- The Termination of Striatonigral fibres on Nigrotectal Neurons in the Rat - A Preliminary Report.- Serotoninergic Innervation of the Monkey Basal Ganglia: An Immunocytochemical, Light and Electron Microscopy Study.- Fluorescent Double Labeling Studies of Thalamostriatal and Corticostriatal Neurons.- The Output Organization of the Pallidum and Substantia Nigra in Primate as Revealed by a Retrograde Double-Labeling Method.- Neural Mechanisms - Synaptic Actions, Transmitters and Receptors, Output Mechanisms.- Dopamine Decreases the Amplitude of Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials in Rat Striatal Neurones.- Presynaptic Actions and Dopamine in the Neostriatum.- Anatomy and Neurophysiology of the Subthalamic Efferent Neurons.- Neural Activity in Basal Ganglia Output Nuclei and Induced Hypermotility.- Tonic Nigral Control of Tecto Spinal/Tecto Diencephalic Branched Neurons: A Possible Implication of Basal Ganglia in Orienting Behavior.- Basal Ganglia Transmitters And Receptors.- The Regulation of Striatal Dopamine Receptors: Subsensitivity Induced by Hyperthyroidism or REM Sleep Deprivation.- Can Enzymes Released from the Nigro-Striatal Pathway Act as Neuromodulators?.- Functions of the Basal Ganglia in Posture, Movement and Behaviour.- Diseases of the Basal Ganglia.- Long Latency Reflexes in Patients with Basal Ganglia Disorders.- Motor Effects Produced by Disruption of Basal Ganglia Output to the Thalamus.- Unilateral Electrolytic and 6-OHDA Lesions of the Substantia Nigra in Baboons: Behavioural and Biochemical Data.- Postural and Behavioural Changes Related to Nigral Cell Loss in Monkeys.- Neurobiological Changes Induced by Neostriatal Kainic Acid Injection An Electrophysiological and Morphological Approach to the Physiopathology of Huntington's Chorea.- Dopamine Neurone Degeneration-like Deficits Produced by Intrahypothalamic Dopamine Injections.- Output Pathways Mediating Basal Ganglia Function.- Responses of Neurons in Different Regions of the Striatum of the Behaving Monkey.- Consequences of Disturbed GABA-Ergic Transmission in Substantia Nigra Pars Reticulata in Freely Moving Cats on their Motor Behaviour, and in Anaesthetized Cats on their Spinal Motor Elements.- Basal Ganglia and Switching Motor Programs.- Structure and Function of the Basal Ganglia: A Point of View.- Symposium Participants.

The Basal ganglia : structure and function

Learning via online activities (e-learning) was introduced to facilitate existing face-to-face teaching to encourage more effective student preparation and then informed participation in an undergraduate physiology laboratory-based course. Active learning was encouraged by hypothesis formation and predictions prior to classes, with opportunities for students to amend their e-learning submissions after classes. Automatic or tutor feedback was provided on student submissions. Evaluation of the course was conducted via student questionnaires, individual student interviews, and analysis of student marks in examinations and of the e-learning component. Student feedback on this entire subject in the university-wide quality of teaching survey was very high by University of Melbourne standards and most encouraging for the first implementation of such a curriculum modification. Results from further detailed surveys of student interactions and engagement and correlation analysis between student responses were also very supportive of the effectiveness of the course. There were no significant differences between examination marks in the new course with e-learning and the previous year without e-learning. However, there was a significant correlation between assessment of student e-learning work and their final examination mark. Correlation analysis between various survey responses helped interpret results and strengthened arguments for e-learning and suggested future improvements for student use of e-learning. This mode of e-learning used to support face-to-face learning activities in the laboratory can be adapted for other disciplines and may assist students in developing a greater appreciation and a deeper approach for learning from their practical class experiences.

https://www.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/advan.00006.2007

A blended approach to active learning in a physiology laboratory-based subject facilitated by an e-learning component

Effect of stimulating the nucleus of the horizontal limb of the diagonal band on single unit activity in the olfactory bulb

Intracellular responses of olfactory bulb granule cells to stimulating the horizontal diagonal band nucleus.

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