Preface Acknowledgments Introduction: How Cognitive Science Changes Ethics 1: Reason as Force: The Moral Law Folk Theory 2: Metaphoric Morality 3: The Metaphoric Basis of Moral Theory 4: Beyond Rules 5: The Impoverishment of Reason: Our Enlightenment Legacy 6: What's Wrong with the Objectivist Self 7: The Narrative Context of Self and Action 8: Moral Imagination 9: Living without Absolutes: Objectivity and the Conditions for Criticism 10: Preserving Our Best Enlightenment Moral Ideals Notes Index

Philosophical Applications of Cognitive Science.Moral Imagination: Implications of Cognitive Science for Ethics

Jonathan Haidt's Moral Foundations Theory is an influential scientific account of morality incorporating psychological, developmental, and evolutionary perspectives. The theory proposes that morality is built upon five innate "foundations," each of which is believed to have been selected for during human evolution and, subsequently, tuned-up by learning during development. We argue here that although some general elements of Haidt's theory are plausible, many other important aspects of his account are seriously flawed. First, innateness and modularity figure centrally in Haidt's account, but terminological and conceptual problems foster confusion and ambiguities. Second, both the theory's proposed number of moral foundations and its taxonomy of the moral domain appear contrived, ignoring equally good candidate foundations and the possibility of substantial intergroup differences in the foundations' contents. Third, the mechanisms (viz., modules) and categorical distinctions (viz., between foundations) proposed by the theory are not consilient with discoveries in contemporary neuroscience concerning the organization, functioning, and development of the brain. In light of these difficulties, we suggest that Haidt's theory is inadequate as a scientific account of morality. Nevertheless, the theory's weaknesses are instructive, and hence, criticism may be useful to psychologists, neuroscientists, and philosophers attempting to advance theories of morality, as well as to researchers wishing to invoke concepts such as innateness and modularity more generally.

Review: can innate, modular foundations explain morality? challenges for haidt's moral foundations theory

A short review is given on the biochemistry of histone acetylation. Sites of acetylation in nucleosomal histones and enzymes involved in acetylation and deacetylation are discussed. Studies relating to the influence of these modifications on the structure of nucleosomes and chromatin are especially emphasized in this article.

Acetylation of histones in nucleosomes

Recognition has grown that moral behavior (e.g., generosity) plays a role in status attainment, yet it remains unclear how, why, and when demonstrating moral characteristics enhances status. Drawing on philosophy, anthropology, psychology, and organizational behavior, I critically review a third route to attaining status: virtue, and propose a moral virtue theory of status attainment to provide a generalized account of the role of morality in status attainment. The moral virtue theory posits that acts of virtue elicit feelings of warmth and admiration (for virtue), and willing deference, toward the virtuous actor. I further consider how the scope and priority of moralities and virtues endorsed by a moral community are bound by culture and social class to affect which moral characteristics enhance status. I end by outlining an agenda for future research into the role of virtue in status attainment.

Beyond Dominance and Competence A Moral Virtue Theory of Status Attainment

We examined whether and how habitual mindfulness (defined as a broad manifold of self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence) relates to ethical sensitivities, operationalized as moral attitudes (as measured by the Moral Foundations Questionnaire) and prejudice. This is a cross-sectional study using factor analysis and path analysis in two independent samples (n = 358 and 424) of college students. With regard to mindfulness, we found that two higher-order measures of self-awareness (i.e., reflective awareness and controlled sense of self in the moment) influenced two higher-order measures of self-regulation (i.e., self-preoccupation and self-compassion), as well as self-transcendence, which was additionally influenced by self-regulation. Path analysis showed that reflective awareness and self-transcendence were directly related to individualizing aspects of morality (i.e., an emphasis on care and fairness); only self-transcendence and social conservatism were related to binding aspects of morality (i.e., an emphasis on loyalty, authority, and sanctity). The individualizing stance, in turn, led to less explicit prejudice, more awareness of privilege, and, indirectly, a higher motivation to control one’s prejudiced reactions. Implicit prejudice, however, was not related to any of the examined variables. The Stoic and Buddhist conjecture that ethical sensitivities can be fostered through mindfulness might well work: Distinct aspects of the mindfulness manifold were directly and indirectly related to the moral foundations; explicit prejudice, awareness of privilege, and the motivation to control one’s prejudiced reactions were likewise related to select aspects of the mindfulness manifold. Within the manifold, reflective awareness and self-transcendence are key variables implicated in awakening and fostering ethical sensitivities.

How the Mindfulness Manifold Relates to the Five Moral Foundations, Prejudice, and Awareness of Privilege

Flanagan (1991) was the first contemporary philosopher to suggest that a modularity of morals hypothesis (MMH) was worth consideration by cognitive science. There is now a serious empirically informed proposal that moral competence is best explained in terms of moral modules-evolutionarily ancient, fast-acting, automatic reactions to particular sociomoral experiences (Haidt & Joseph, 2007). MMH fleshes out an idea nascent in Aristotle, Mencius, and Darwin. We discuss the evidence for MMH, specifically an ancient version, "Mencian Moral Modularity," which claims four innate modules, and "Social Intuitionist Modularity," which claims five innate modules. We compare these two moral modularity models, discuss whether the postulated modules are best conceived as perceptual/Fodorian or emotional/Darwinian, and consider whether assuming MMH true has any normative ethical consequences whatsoever. The discussion of MMH reconnects cognitive science with normative ethics in a way that involves the reassertion of the "is-ought" problem. We explain in a new way what this problem is and why it would not yield. The reason does not involve the logic of "ought," but rather the plasticity of human nature and the realistic options to "grow" and "do" human nature in multifarious legitimate ways.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2009.01076.x

What Does the Modularity of Morals Have to Do With Ethics? Four Moral Sprouts Plus or Minus a Few

Localization and in vitro specificity of histone acetylation.

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What Does the Modularity of Morals Have to Do With Ethics? Four Moral Sprouts Plus or Minus a Few

Localization and in vitro specificity of histone acetylation.