A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered. In this article, we present a life-span theory of development based on the concept of control. Research on life-span development has become an increasingly active area of inquiry in the last two decades and has the potential of yielding fundamental theories about the emergence and transformation of human behavior over the life course (e.g., P. B. Baltes, 1987). However, as noted by Birren and Bengtson (1988), the field of life-course development and aging is at present best characterized as data rich but theory poor. Most existing developmental theories embrace limited temporal and functioning domains. With the exception of personality theorists such as Erikson, Loevinger, Gould, and Levinson (see Cavanaugh, 1990; Schulz & Ewen, 1993), psychologists have made few attempts to develop lifespan theories of development, in part because such efforts require the integration of information from multiple domains, including the behavioral, social, and biological sciences. A second formidable challenge posed by such an undertaking is the problem of level of analysis. Ideally, such a theory should explain both macro-level behaviors such as major life-course decisions

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/102/2/284.pdf

A life-span theory of control.

The major goal of this article was to review and synthesize the empirical research on caregiver gender and psychiatric morbidity, with the aim of answering three questions: (a) Is there greater psychiatric morbidity among female than male caregivers, (b) is the excess psychiatric morbidity among female caregivers attributable to caregiving, and (c) what factors in the caregiving situation contribute to the excess psychiatric morbidity among female caregivers? In almost all studies reviewed, women caregivers reported more psychiatric symptoms than men caregivers. Comparisons with noncaregiving community samples suggest that female caregivers experience excess psychiatric morbidity attributable to caregiving. Using a stress process model as an organizing framework, the study demonstrated that at all stages of the stress process, women are at greater risk for psychiatric morbidity than men. Directions for future research and implications for interventions and public policy are discussed.

/pdf/gender-differences-in-psychiatric-morbidity-among-family-3brfobsvz2.pdf

Gender Differences in Psychiatric Morbidity Among Family Caregivers A Review and Analysis

With the aging of the population, an increasing number of older adults are diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease or a related disorder. Most people with a dementing illness will be cared for at home by a family member, who may experience a variety of physical, emotional, financial, and social burdens associated with the caregiving role. The purpose of this article is to (a) examine the physical and psychological effects of providing care to a family member with a dementing illness, (b) describe the factors that help determine the nature and magnitude of these effects, and (c) discuss several approaches to caregiver intervention designed to reduce the negative impact of this challenging role. Sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., gender, relationship to the patient, culture, race, ethnicity), caregiver resources (e.g., coping, social support, availability of a companion animal), and personal characteristics (e.g., personality, health behaviors) shape the dementia caregiving experience and have implications for interventions designed to prevent or lessen the stress and burden that often accompany the role.

The Costs of Caring: Impact of Dementia on Family Caregivers:

Understandings of aging and physical leisure in the West are continually changing at both the individual and social levels. With the aging of populations and the increasing value placed on the maintenance of physical activity in later life, the participation of older people in a leisure activity such as competitive sport is a socio-cultural phenomenon on the rise. This study explores the motives and experiences of 28 Australian Masters Games athletes ages 60–89. From a post-structural perspective, the older athletes were seen to simultaneously mobilize and resist contradictory discourses of aging and physical activity through their words and actions. Through this negotiation process the participants attempted to manage the physical and psychological realities of aging. The findings raised issues about leisure and an aging identity in a society that values youthfulness, physical activity, and independence.

Competitive Sport as Leisure in Later Life: Negotiations, Discourse, and Aging

Aging and depression: Vulnerability and stress across adulthood

1. INTRODUCTION 2.Introduction 3.Research Methods and Issues 4.II. PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:5.Physical Aspects of Aging 6.Sensation and Perception 7.Memory 8. Intelligence and Cognition 9.III. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: 10.Personality and Theories of Life-Span Development 11.Relationships and Interpersonal Behavior 12.Work and Retirement 13.IV. CRISES AND PROBLEMS 14.Stress and Coping 15.Adult Psychopathology 16.Death and Dying

Adult Development and Aging: Myths and Emerging Realities

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Adult Development and Aging: Myths and Emerging Realities