抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

There is now clear scientific evidence that emissions from economic activity, particularly the burning of fossil fuels for energy, are causing changes to the Earth´s climate. A sound understanding of the economics of climate change is needed in order to underpin an effective global response to this challenge. The Stern Review is an independent, rigourous and comprehensive analysis of the economic aspects of this crucial issue. It has been conducted by Sir Nicholas Stern, Head of the UK Government Economic Service, and a former Chief Economist of the World Bank. The Economics of Climate Change will be invaluable for all students of the economics and policy implications of climate change, and economists, scientists and policy makers involved in all aspects of climate change.

The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review

Continuing population and consumption growth will mean that the global demand for food will increase for at least another 40 years. Growing competition for land, water, and energy, in addition to the overexploitation of fisheries, will affect our ability to produce food, as will the urgent requirement to reduce the impact of the food system on the environment. The effects of climate change are a further threat. But the world can produce more food and can ensure that it is used more efficiently and equitably. A multifaceted and linked global strategy is needed to ensure sustainable and equitable food security, different components of which are explored here.

/pdf/food-security-the-challenge-of-feeding-9-billion-people-7gwey15y62.pdf

Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People

世界経済・社会統計 = World development indicators

计量经济分析 = Econometric analysis

We examine the causal effects of the energy subsidy programme PetroCaribe in the three dimensions of sustainable development: economic, social and environmental. We use the synthetic control method to construct a counterfactual and compare it to the outcomes of the beneficiary countries and thus estimate the magnitude and direction of the PetroCaribe effect. PetroCaribe had a positive effect on economic growth in most of the beneficiary countries without a deterioration of their environmental quality. However, this economic boost was not followed by an improvement in social development.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/manc.12275

Causal effects of PetroCaribe on sustainable development: a synthetic control analysis

: We estimate a pooled travel model for the destination choice of tourists from the Republic of Ireland in 2006. We distinguish between holidaymakers (further split into travelling with children, elderly, and other), visitors to family, visitors to friends, business travellers and other travellers. We show that the different types of tourist have very different preferences. Elderly holidaymakers and family visitors stand out most from the “average” tourist. Preferences for cultural heritage, population density, and temperature discriminate the most between tourist types. We find some evidence that destination preferences vary over the year, but limited data prevent a full investigation. All types of Irish tourists are indifferent to precipitation. Only holidaymakers respond to temperature differences. All holidaymakers dislike cold destinations, but only elderly holidaymakers dislike hot destinations as well. Corresponding Authors : sean.lyons@esri.ie; karen.mayor@esri.ie; richard.tol@esri.ie

https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/67986/1/558959008.pdf

The Climate Preferences of Irish Tourists by Purpose of Travel

This chapter reviews the economic assessment of climate change damages as presented in D. W. Pearce et al. It addresses the choice between willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to accept (WTA), the extrapolation of local case study estimates to other regions, and equity weights. Valuation is based on a mix of WTP, occasionally WTA, and various approximations, including benefit transfers. The choice between WTP and WTA constitutes an implicit statement about prevailing property rights, and this is sometimes used as a guideline for the choice of concept. The distinction between WTP and WTA is thus blurred for impact estimates. It is an empirical fact that economic values derived under a WTP framework tend to differ from estimates that measure the same damage using WTA. The climate-change damage cost literature relies heavily on benefit transfer. This is a short cut, in which WTP/WTA results obtained in one study are transferred to a new problem.

Empirical and Ethical Arguments in Climate Change Impact Valuation and Aggregation

GCMs project higher temperatures for all of Europe, with greater changes at higher latitudes. In Northern and Western Europe, winter precipitation may increase, and summer precipitation may remain unchanged. Different models show different changes for Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. Water resources follow roughly the same patterns, although higher temperatures increase the risk of summer droughts, particularly in Southern and Central Europe. In Western Europe, river floods may increase. Vegetation patterns may drastically change, with some species and communities expanding and other shrinking. Particularly vulnerable are ecosystems depending on northern cold, and ecosystems isolated by geography or human activity. On the whole, agriculture would seem to benefit from climatic change, although not-well-understood pests and water availability may alter this. Sea level rise would negatively affect low-lying coasts and deltas, which support important natural and human systems. In a warmer climate, cold-related health problems would decline, but heat-related ones would increase. Tentatively, the balance is reduced mortality. Less important climate-related diseases would, on balance, increase. Research on other sector has progressed less far; results show mixed positive and negative impacts. Expressing all impact in money and adding up suggests a light negative overall impact of climate change on Europe.

The potential impacts of climate change on Europe

How overconfident are current projections of carbon dioxide emissions

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