Recent years have witnessed a growing global interest in 3D concrete printing technology due to its economic and scientific advantages. The application of foamed concrete, renowned for its exceptional thermal and acoustic insulation properties, not only holds economic attractiveness but also aligns seamlessly with the principles of sustainable development. This study explores various solutions related to 3D printing technology in construction, discussing the design, production, and properties of foamed concrete mixtures. The integration of 3D printing and the potential for automating the entire process offers opportunities to boost productivity and reduce construction costs. Furthermore, the utilization of foamed concrete with its commendable insulation properties will enable a reduction in the usage of materials other than concrete (e.g., mineral wool, facade mesh, and polystyrene), significantly facilitating the recycling process during building demolition. This, in turn, will lead to the preservation of nonrenewable natural resources and a decrease in CO2 emissions. Despite the promising results, there have been limited studies focusing on 3D printing with foamed materials, whereas a survey of the existing body of literature indicates a notable absence of endeavors pertaining to the utilization of aerated concrete within the realm of 3D printing, especially geopolymer composites (GP) and hybrid geopolymer composites (HGP). The outcomes delineated in the ensuing discourse are demonstrative for conventionally used materials rather than the additive manufacturing variant. Hence, this work aims to systematically review existing practices and techniques related to producing foamed concrete with 3D printing technology. This analysis also contributes to the establishment of a foundational framework and furnishes a preliminary basis upon which future endeavors aimed at the 3D printing of aerated concrete can be embarked. The findings from the literature analysis justify the desirability of continuing research on this topic, particularly when considering the potential for large-scale industrial implementation. This article provides a comprehensive state of the knowledge on the development of 3D printing techniques for foamed concrete mixtures. By consolidating and analyzing findings from different studies, this article offers insights into the advancements, challenges, and potential applications of foamed concrete in additive manufacturing processes. This, in turn, contributes to the overall understanding and advancement of 3D printing technologies using foamed concrete as a versatile and sustainable construction material. The encouraging results obtained from the analysis further underscore the need for the continued exploration of 3D printing, especially with an eye towards its industrial-scale implementation.

Feasibility Review of Aerated Materials Application in 3D Concrete Printing.

3D Concrete printing requires much more elaborate quality control procedures compared to conventional concrete processing. Due to the various process steps, and the corresponding variation in material behaviour, time-, and length-scales, a single quality indicator and measurement technique (similar to the 'slump test' for traditional construction) cannot be selected. Instead, three families of quality indicators have been established: homogeneity during material production and deposition (quality variations), material evolution during printing (transient material behaviour), and macroscopic features and geometric conformity during printing and of the final object (geometry). For each family, quality assessment techniques which have been proven in other fields or for different applications, have been successfully transferred and adapted to the 3DCP process. In some cases, completely new methods have been developed. This paper aims to provide the state-of-the-art in such quality assessment methods, indicating high potential methods and research gaps across all scale levels of 3D concrete printing processes. 

On-line and in-line quality assessment across all scale levels of 3D concrete printing

This paper aims to provide a global snapshot of concrete 3D-printed buildings and to uncover robotic-oriented large-scale fabrication strategies. Therefore, an extensive internet search and literature review was carried out to investigate 3D-printed buildings. In this study, 154 construction projects with 204 buildings were systematically recorded and evaluated from 2013 up to 2023. Using an exploratory mixed-methods approach and a comparative case study analysis, a total of 88 3D-printed buildings were first evaluated descriptively. Thereafter, different existing printing strategies for in situ, on-site, and off-site production were identified, using an iterative approach. In addition to the geographical distribution, the descriptive evaluation also showed the key players as drivers for the spread of the 3D-printing technology and the correlations between printer type, fabrication strategy, and the building size. With regard to the printing strategy, three different approaches for in situ and off-site fabrication can be defined, depending on the printer types and their characteristics (work size and mobility): print-in-one-go, horizontal or vertical segmentation, and the multi-element vs. full-scaled wall strategy. However, the study showed that the data quality was sometimes difficult due to a lack of information and essential details of the printing process and segmentation. 

A Global Snapshot of 3D-Printed Buildings: Uncovering Robotic-Oriented Fabrication Strategies

3D printing has become one of the most innovative technologies for cement-based systems (CBS). However, recent studies have shown some issues related to printability and buildability (water drainage, plugs on extruder die, spreading of first layer, etc). To achieve a proper rheology control of CBS, it is essential to adapt the material fresh state properties (initial shear yield stress and structural build-up). In this study, a reference cement-based mortar with fly ash (25%), a 1:1.5 binder to sand ratio and a 0.38 water to binder ratio was used. A polycarboxilate ether-based superplasticizer was added until a consistency of around 1 kPa, measured with the cone-penetration test, was reached. Then, small amounts of several types of nanoclays (NC) in powder and slurry form (sepiolite, attapulgite and bentonite) and natural fibers were added to modify mortar rheological properties. The aim of the study was to characterize the rheological properties of 3D printing mortar samples with NC and basalt fibers (BF) to understand printability and buildability of this material. Cone-penetration test, flow table test and slump test were used to characterize 3D printing capacities. The cone-penetration test was performed in stirred and left at rest samples to assess shear yield stress before and after material deposition. Nanoclays showed a remarkable capacity to retain water and avoid drainage during extrusion but also to increase fresh state strength of material over time. Besides, they increased shear yield stress over time when left at rest. On the contrary, samples stirred over time did not show any increase of shear yield stress, especially samples with slurry nanoclays. Natural fibers also reduced drainage and enhance printability control regarding to reference mortar. BF also enhanced a performance on stirred sample but showed slightly changes on structural build-up at rest, mainly governed by NC effect. 

Rheology characterization of 3D printing mortars with nanoclays and basalt fibers

This chapter explores the most recent trends and challenges stemming from the integration of 3D printing within the architectural sector. The rapid evolution of additive manufacturing has brought forth innovative design possibilities, parametric modeling and sustainable material exploration. The discussion provides insights into available 3D printing technologies and methodologies for fabricating architectural products or designs, along with the advantages and challenges that must be addressed to get maximum benefits. To achieve this goal, case studies and current research are examined, with a specific focus on ongoing issues related to housing and environmental needs. Through an analysis of these developments, this contribution highlights the dynamic landscape where technology and architecture intersect, underscoring the necessity of collaborative approaches to fully realize the continuously improving and more sustainable efficiency of 3D printing in shaping the future of the construction field.

Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

Lessons learned of project Milestone: The first 3D printed concrete house in the Netherlands

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Lessons learned of project Milestone: The first 3D printed concrete house in the Netherlands