University of Wisconsin--Madis on Three studies tested basic assumptions derived from a theoretical model based on the dissociation ofantomatic and controlled processes involved in prejudice. Study I supported the model's assumption that high- and low-prejudice persons are equally knowledgeable of the cultural stereotype. The model suggests that the stereotype is automatically activated in the presence of a member (or some symbolic equivalent) of the stereotyped group and that Iow-prejudiee responses require controlled inhibition of the automatically activated stereotype. Study 2, which examined the effects of automarie stereotype activation on the evaluation of ambiguous stereotype-relevant behaviors performed by a race-unspecified person, suggested that when subjects' ability to consciously monitor stereotype activation is precluded, both high- and low-prejudice subjects produce stereotype-congruent evaluations of ambiguous behaviors. Study 3 examined high- and low-prejudice subjects' responses in a consciously directed thought-listing task. Consistent with the model, only low-prejudice subjects inhibited the automatically activated stereotype-congruent thoughts and replaced them with thoughts reflecting equality and negations of the stereotype. The relation between stereotypes and prejudice and implications for prejudice reduction are discussed.

https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/psyifp/aeechterhoff/wintersemester2011-12/attitudesandsocialjudgment/devine_automcontrprejudice_jpsp1989.pdf

Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components.

Human differentiation on the basis of gender is a fundamental phenomenon that affects virtually every aspect of people's daily lives. This article presents the social cognitive theory of gender role development and functioning. It specifies how gender conceptions are constructed from the complex mix of experiences and how they operate in concert with motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms to guide gender-linked conduct throughout the life course. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Human evolution provides bodily structures and biological potentialities that permit a range of possibilities rather than dictate a fixed type of gender differentiation. People contribute to their self-development and bring about social changes that define and structure gender relationships through their agentic actions within the interrelated systems of influence.

https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1999PR.pdf

Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation.

A comprehensive theory of morality must explain how moral reasoning, in 
conjunction with other psychosocial factors, governs moral conduct. Social cog­
nitive theory adopts a cognitive interactionist perspective to moral phenomena. 
Within this conceptual framework, personal factors in the form of moral thought 
and affective self-reactions, moral conduct, and environmental factors all operate 
as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally. Moral think­
ing is a process in which multidimensional rules or standards are used to judge 
conduct. Situations with moral implications contain many decisional ingredients 
that may be given lesser or greater weight depending upon the standards by 
which they are cognitively processed and the particular constellations of events 
in given moral predicaments. There are some culturally universal features to the 
developmental changes of standards of conduct and the locus of moral agency. 
These commonalities arise from basic uniformities in the types of biopsycho­
social changes that occur with increasing age in all cultures. A theory of morality 
requires a broader conception than is provided by rationalistic approaches cast in 
terms of skill in abstract reasoning. Moral conduct is motivated and regulated 
mainly by the ongoing exercise of self-reactive influence. Self-regulatory mecha­
nisms, therefore, form an integral part in the conception of moral agency in 
social cognitive theory. Development of self-regulatory capabilities does not 
create an invariant control mechanism within a person. Self-reactive influences 
do not operate unless they are activated, and there are many psychosocial pro­
cesses by which self-sanctions can be selectively activated and disengaged from 
transgressive conduct. Mechanisms of moral disengagement also play a central 
role in the social cognitive theory of morality.

Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action.

This chapter challenges traditional models of deindividuation. These are based on the assumption that such factors as immersion in a group and anonymity lead to a loss of selfhood and hence of control over behaviour. We argue that such models depend upon an individualistic conception of the self, viewed as a unitary construct referring to that which makes individuals unique. This is rejected in favour of the idea that self can be defined at various different levels including the categorical self as well as the personal self. Hence a social identity model of deindividuation (SIDE) is outlined. Evidence is presented to show that deindividuation manipulations gain effect, firstly, through the ways in which they affect the salience of social identity (and hence conformity to categorical norms) and, secondly, through their effects upon strategic considerations relating to the expression of social identities. We conclude that the classic deindividuation paradigm of anonymity within a social group, far from lead...

A Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Phenomena

The authors propose a justification-suppression model (JSM), which characterizes the processes that lead to prejudice expression and the experience of one's own prejudice. They suggest that "genuine" prejudices are not directly expressed but are restrained by beliefs, values, and norms that suppress them. Prejudices are expressed when justifications (e.g., attributions, ideologies, stereotypes) release suppressed prejudices. The same process accounts for which prejudices are accepted into the self-concept The JSM is used to organize the prejudice literature, and many empirical findings are recharacterized as factors affecting suppression or justification, rather than directly affecting genuine prejudice. The authors discuss the implications of the JSM for several topics, including prejudice measurement, ambivalence, and the distinction between prejudice and its expression.

/pdf/a-justification-suppression-model-of-the-expression-and-c7ow5siqxy.pdf

A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice.

Two experiments employing white subjects examined the effects of anonymity, expected retaliation, race of target, and a campus racial disturbance on delivered and anticipated aggression (electric shock). Prior to statistical treatment, the data were subjected to principal components analyses, with three aggression components being identified: general direct aggression, extremes in direct aggression, and indirect aggression. In Experiment I, it was found that less direct and more indirect forms of aggression were delivered to black than to white targets when there was opportunity for the target to retaliate. When retaliation was unlikely, the subjects delivered more direct forms of aggression to black than to white targets. Following a campus racial disturbance, there were increases in direct forms of aggression toward black targets, with such aggression now being less dependent on the opportunity for retaliation (Experiment II). In both experiments more direct aggression was anticipated from black than from white targets. The results support the conclusion that white persons have learned to fear black retaliation, but that this fear acts only to inhibit direct forms of aggression in certain denned situations.

Variables in interracial aggression: anonymity, expected retaliation, and a riot

Rules, Models, and Self-Reinforcement in Children.

Effect of vicarious scheduling on the verbal conditioning of hostility in children.

The Simulated Class as a Method for Studying Teacher Decision Making.

Two studies investigated the effects of practice and paradigm shift on three transfer paradigms: A-B’, A-B; A-C, A-B; and C-D, A-B. Ss were administered the same paradigm for three successive sets of paired associates after which they were either continued with the same paradigm for a fourth set or shifted to a different paradigm. Performance under the A-B’ paradigm tended to diverge from the other paradigms as a function of sets. Paradigm shift did not affect performance beyond that expected on the basis of the nature of the paradigm shifted to.

/pdf/verbal-paired-associate-transfer-as-a-function-of-practice-3sxedyo7ft.pdf

Verbal paired-associate transfer as a function of practice and paradigm shift

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