Most people who have had more than cursory experience in the husbandry of nonhuman primate colonies will agree that parasitism is one of the most common disease entities that affects these animals. Numerous protozoal and metazoal genera have been described as infecting the members of all major nonhuman primate groups. Many of these are considered to be nonpathogenic, or at least their detrimental effects upon the host have yet to be eludicated. A large number, however, can produce lesions that result in serious debilitation and can create opportunities for secondary infections that may be fatal. This process appears to be exacerbated by the stress of capture and confinement.

/pdf/the-pathoparasitology-of-nonhuman-primates-a-review-13rj3kzxln.pdf

The Pathoparasitology of Nonhuman Primates: A Review

Many human parasites and pathogens have closely related counterparts among non-human primates. For example, non-human primates harbour several species of malaria causing parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Studies suggest that for a better understanding of the origin and evolution of human malaria parasites it is important to know the diversity and evolutionary relationships of these parasites in non-human primates. Much work has been undertaken on malaria parasites in wild great Apes of Africa as well as wild monkeys of Southeast Asia however studies are lacking from South Asia, particularly India. India is one of the major malaria prone regions in the world and exhibits high primate diversity which in turn provides ideal setting for both zoonoses and anthropozoonoses. In this study we report the molecular data for malaria parasites from wild populations of Indian non-human primates. We surveyed 349 fecal samples from five different Indian non-human primates, while 94 blood and tissue samples from one of the Indian non-human primate species (Macaca radiata) and one blood sample from M. mulatta. Our results confirm the presence of P. fragile, P. inui and P. cynomolgi in Macaca radiata. Additionally, we report for the first time the presence of human malarial parasite, P. falciparum, in M. mulatta and M. radiata. Additionally, our results indicate that M. radiata does not exhibit population structure probably due to human mediated translocation of problem monkeys. Human mediated transport of macaques adds an additional level of complexity to tacking malaria in human. This issue has implications for both the spread of primate as well as human specific malarias.

/pdf/reinvestigating-the-status-of-malaria-parasite-plasmodium-sp-12or25hah5.pdf

Reinvestigating the status of malaria parasite (Plasmodium sp.) in Indian non-human primates

The identification of a large focus of Plasmodium knowlesi in Malaysian Borneo and subsequent reports from several countries in South-east Asia has led its recognition as the fifth human malaria parasite. The natural preferred hosts of this species still continue to be macaque monkeys that live in broad-leaf rain forests. This review describes the distribution of macaque monkeys, the Anopheles species belonging to the Leucosphyrus Group that have been incriminated as vectors, morphological and clinical features of this parasite, and the transmission cycles that have been identified for this parasite. As the North-eastern states of India share their borders with P. knowlesi malaria endemic countries and because travelers from countries in South-east Asia visit India and vice versa, risks of this parasite entering India and its spread are also discussed.

Centenary celebrations article: Plasmodium knowlesi: from macaque monkeys to humans in South-east Asia and the risk of its spread in India.

The Western Ghats of south India, encompassing the Nilgiri and Cardamom hills, are the wettest region of the country. Hills rising upto 3,000 metres receive over 200 cm of rainfall from both the south-west monsoon (June to September) and north-eastern monsoon (October to January). The eastern slopes of the Nilgiri Hills (200-500 metres) are bounded by Coimbatore and Erode districts of Tamil Nadu; whereas the western slopes of the Nilgiri and Cardamom hills are in the state of Kerala. The countryside has rich forests of teak and sandalwood, interspersed by groves of coconut, rubber, pepper, cardamom and banana plantations. Apart from the rich flora, monkeys ( Macaca radiata) m aintain a strong association in orchards with humans competing for food. The emergence of DF/DHF in this hilly region is a recent occurrence. An epidemiological team from the National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD) investigated the first-ever reported outbreak in Coimbatore in 1998. In all, 20 serological positive (IgM) cases were recorded by the city corporation. Five cases came from urban towns and 15 cases from rural areas of the two districts of Coimbatore and Erode. Rural cases were scattered in distantly located villages. Pyramid characterization and clustering of cases was conspicuously absent. No attempt was made to link urban cases to central/peripheral wards, nor the history of movement of patients two weeks prior to the onset of fever was investigated. No increase in fever rate was observed. DF cases did not show any relationship with presence/absence of Aedes breeding. Aedes aegypti detected in urban centres failed to amplify the infection. Kerala state also reported 116 cases in 1997, from Kottayam district. Out of these, 14 cases were confirmed serologically. After a lull of 4 years, 70 probable cases out of 877 were reported from the four districts famous for rubber plantations. Entomological investigations recorded only Aedes albopictus in these areas. Considering the high experimental susceptibility of both species of monkeys, viz. Macaca mulatta and Macaca radiata to yellow fever virus, detection of dengue antigen in field collected Aedes albopictus in Kozhikode (Kerala) and the evidence of transovarian transmission in Aedes albopictus reared from soils of tree holes at Jodhpur – Rajasthan (western India) lend support to the hypothesis that DF in the Western Ghats of South India exists as enzootic monkey – Aedes albopictus – monkey cycle and causes epizootics among rural human population either during periodic amplification of the enzootic cycle or as occupational hazards to the people working in orchards.

Sporadic Prevalence of DF/DHF in the Nilgiri and Cardamom Hills of Western Ghats in South India: Is it a Seeding from Sylvatic Dengue Cycle - A Hypothesis

The normal anatomy of the male reproductive system in Macaca radiata is presented here. The external genitalia consist of a triangular button-shaped glans penis. The corpus cavernosum, and spongiosum form the vascular component of the penis and the baculum or os penis forms the non-vascular erectile component. The baculum is one of the longest in the genus macaques. The scrotal sac is non-pigmented, slightly pendulous, with scattered hairs, faintly corrugated, and does not reach the ischial callosities in the sitting posture. The testicles are ovoid in shape without appendix. Right and left testicular arteries originate at the level of the inter-vertebral disc between T12–L1 and L2–L3, respectively. Seminiferous tubules present mixed stages of spermatogenesis, i.e. single/multistage. The epididymis is crescent shaped, attached to the postero-lateral border of the testis without an appendix. Light microscopic observation revealed a characteristic high columnar epithelium with stereocilia. Clear cells or light cells are seen in the caudal region. The ductus deferens display a lumen lined by pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium separated by concentric layers of smooth muscle cells covered by serosa. The seminal vesicles are pyramidal in shape, prominently projecting above the urinary bladder, and are the largest of the accessory glands, typical of polyandrous primate genera. The prostate is conical in shape. Its base is in contact with the trigone of the bladder. Its posterior surface shows a transverse cleft separating an upper quarter, the cranial lobe, from the lower three-quarters of the gland. Compared with other macaques there are many distinguishing features in M. radiata. Excellent adaptability and spermatogenic efficiency in the laboratory environment makes this animal a good primate model for andrological research.

Anatomical aspects of the male reproductive system in the bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata).

An enzootic focus of simian malaria in Macaca radiata radiata Geoffroy of Nilgiris, Madras State, India.

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An enzootic focus of simian malaria in Macaca radiata radiata Geoffroy of Nilgiris, Madras State, India.