The microorganisms in biofilms live in a self-produced matrix of hydrated extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that form their immediate environment. EPS are mainly polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids; they provide the mechanical stability of biofilms, mediate their adhesion to surfaces and form a cohesive, three-dimensional polymer network that interconnects and transiently immobilizes biofilm cells. In addition, the biofilm matrix acts as an external digestive system by keeping extracellular enzymes close to the cells, enabling them to metabolize dissolved, colloidal and solid biopolymers. Here we describe the functions, properties and constituents of the EPS matrix that make biofilms the most successful forms of life on earth.

The biofilm matrix

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) of microbial aggregates in biological wastewater treatment systems: a review.

Biofilms probably comprise the normal environment for most microbial cells in many natural and artificial habitats, and as such are complex associations of cells, extracellular products and detritus either trapped within the biofilm or released from cells which have lysed as the biofilm ages (Christensen, 1989). The main ‘cement ’ for all these cells and products is the mixture of polysaccharides secreted by the cells established within the biofilm. Probably the nearest analogy is processed food, in which a mixture of macromolecules of all types interact in variousways to form a recognizable structure. Within such a structure, cells, water, ions and soluble low-and high-molecular-mass products are trapped. In many biofilms, as in food, the hydrated polysaccharides may be in a semi-solid state. The major component in the biofilm matrix is water – up to 97% (Zhang et al., 1998), and the characteristics of the solvent are determined by the solutes dissolved in it. The exact structure of any biofilm is probably a unique feature of the environment in which it develops. As pointed out by Stoodley et al. (1999a), nutritional and physical conditions greatly affect the nature of laboratory biofilms and this is equally true for other types. Wimpenny & Colasanti (1997) have also suggested that biofilm structure is largely determined by the concentration of substrate. They further postulated that such differences also validate at least three conceptual models of biofilms – heterogeneous mosaics, structures penetrated by water channels, and dense confluent biofilms.

/pdf/biofilm-exopolysaccharides-a-strong-and-sticky-framework-2l41wpcyze.pdf

Biofilm exopolysaccharides: a strong and sticky framework.

This article reviews the mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to biomaterial surfaces, the factors affecting the adhesion, the techniques used in estimating bacteria-material interactions and the models that have been developed in order to predict adhesion. The process of bacterial adhesion includes an initial physicochemical interaction phase and a late molecular and cellular one. It is a complicated process influenced by many factors, including the bacterial properties, the material surface characteristics, the environmental factors, such as the presence of serum proteins and the associated flow conditions. Two categories of techniques used in estimating bacteria-material interactions are described: those that utilize fluid flowing against the adhered bacteria and counting the percentage of bacteria that detach, and those that manipulate single bacteria in various configurations which lend themselves to more specific force application and provide the basis for theoretical analysis of the receptor-ligand interactions. The theories that are reviewed are the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory, the thermodynamic approach and the extended DLVO theory. Over the years, significant work has been done to investigate the process of bacterial adhesion to biomaterial surfaces, however a lot of questions still remain unanswered.

/pdf/concise-review-of-mechanisms-of-bacterial-adhesion-to-w25jkdup5h.pdf

Concise review of mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to biomaterials and of techniques used in estimating bacteria-material interactions.

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) produced by microorganisms are a complex mixture of biopolymers primarily consisting of polysaccharides, as well as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and humic substances. EPS make up the intercellular space of microbial aggregates and form the structure and architecture of the biofilm matrix. The key functions of EPS comprise the mediation of the initial attachment of cells to different substrata and protection against environmental stress and dehydration. The aim of this review is to present a summary of the current status of the research into the role of EPS in bacterial attachment followed by biofilm formation. The latter has a profound impact on an array of biomedical, biotechnology and industrial fields including pharmaceutical and surgical applications, food engineering, bioremediation and biohydrometallurgy. The diverse structural variations of EPS produced by bacteria of different taxonomic lineages, together with examples of biotechnological applications, are discussed. Finally, a range of novel techniques that can be used in studies involving biofilm-specific polysaccharides is discussed.

https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/14/7/2535/pdf

Bacterial extracellular polysaccharides involved in biofilm formation.

The role of intermolecular interactions: studies on model systems for bacterial biofilms

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The role of intermolecular interactions: studies on model systems for bacterial biofilms