Statistical Methods For Agricultural Workers

Metal contamination issues are becoming increasingly common in India and elsewhere, with many documented cases of metal toxicity in mining industries, foundries, smelters, coal-burning power plants and agriculture. Heavy metals, such as cadmium, copper, lead, chromium and mercury are major environmental pollutants, particularly in areas with high anthropogenic pressure. Heavy metal accumulation in soils is of concern in agricultural production due to the adverse effects on food safety and marketability, crop growth due to phytotoxicity, and environmental health of soil organisms. The influence of plants and their metabolic activities affects the geological and biological redistribution of heavy metals through pollution of the air, water and soil. This article details the range of heavy metals, their occurrence and toxicity for plants. Metal toxicity has high impact and relevance to plants and consequently it affects the ecosystem, where the plants form an integral component. Plants growing in metal-polluted sites exhibit altered metabolism, growth reduction, lower biomass production and metal accumulation. Various physiological and biochemical processes in plants are affected by metals. The contemporary investigations into toxicity and tolerance in metal-stressed plants are prompted by the growing metal pollution in the environment. A few metals, including copper, manganese, cobalt, zinc and chromium are, however, essential to plant metabolism in trace amounts. It is only when metals are present in bioavailable forms and at excessive levels, they have the potential to become toxic to plants. This review focuses mainly on zinc, cadmium, copper, mercury, chromium, lead, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese and iron.

Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for plants: a review

Plants are the target of a wide range of pollutants that vary in concentration, speciation, and toxicity. Such pollutants mainly enter the plant system through the soil (Arshad et al. 2008) or via the atmosphere (Uzu et al. 2010). Among common pollutants that affect plants, lead is among the most toxic and frequently encountered (Cecchi et al. 2008; Grover et al. 2010; Shahid et al. 2011). Lead continues to be used widely in many industrial processes and occurs as a contaminant in all environmental compartments (soils, water, the atmosphere, and living organisms). The prominence of environmental lead contamination results both from its persistence (Islam et al. 2008; Andra et al. 2009; Punamiya et al. 2010) and from its present and past numerous sources. These sources have included smelting, combustion of leaded gasoline, or applications of lead-contaminated media (sewage sludge and fertilizers) to land (Piotrowska et al. 2009; Gupta et al. 2009; Sammut et al. 2010; Grover et al. 2010). In 2009, production of recoverable lead from mining operations was 1690, 516, and 400 thousand metric tons by China, Australia, and the USA, respectively (USGS 2009).

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Lead Uptake, Toxicity, and Detoxification in Plants

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), a staple food for more than half of the world population, is commonly grown by transplanting seedlings into puddled soil (wet tillage) in Asia. This production system is labor-, water-, and energy-intensive and is becoming less profitable as these resources are becoming increasingly scarce. It also deteriorates the physical properties of soil, adversely affects the performance of succeeding upland crops, and contributes to methane emissions. These factors demand a major shift from puddled transplanting to direct seeding of rice (DSR) in irrigated rice ecosystems. Direct seeding (especially wet seeding) is widely adopted in some and is spreading to other Asian countries. However, combining dry seeding (Dry-DSR) with zero/reduced tillage (e.g., conservation agriculture (CA)) is gaining momentum as a pathway to address rising water and labor scarcity, and to enhance system sustainability. Published studies show various benefits from direct seeding compared with puddled transplanting, which typically include (1) similar yields; (2) savings in irrigation water, labor, and production costs; (3) higher net economic returns; and (4) a reduction in methane emissions. Despite these benefits, the yields have been variable in some regions, especially with dry seeding combined with reduced/zero tillage due to (1) uneven and poor crop stand, (2) poor weed control, (3) higher spikelet sterility, (4) crop lodging, and (5) poor knowledge of water and nutrient management. In addition, rice varieties currently used for DSR are primarily selected and bred for puddled transplanted rice. Risks associated with a shift from puddled transplanting to DSR include (1) a shift toward hard-to-control weed flora, (2) development of herbicide resistance in weeds, (3) evolution of weedy rice, (4) increases in soil-borne pathogens such as nematodes, (5) higher emissions of nitrous oxide—a potent greenhouse gas , and (6) nutrient disorders, especially N and micronutrients. The objectives of this chapter are to review (1) drivers of the shift from puddled transplanting to DSR; (2) overall crop performance, including resource-use efficiencies of DSR; and (3) lessons from countries where DSR has already been widely adopted. Based on the existing evidence, we present an integrated package of technologies for Dry-DSR, including the identification of rice traits associated with the attainment of optimum grain yield with Dry-DSR.

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Direct Seeding of Rice: Recent Developments and Future Research Needs

In the past decades the increased use of chromium (Cr) in several anthropogenic activities and consequent contamination of soil and water have become an increasing concern. Cr exists in several oxidation states but the most stable and common forms are Cr(0), Cr(III) and Cr(VI) species. Cr toxicity in plants depends on its valence state. Cr(VI) as being highly mobile is toxic, while Cr(III) as less mobile is less toxic. Cr is taken up by plants through carriers of essential ions such as sulphate. Cr uptake, translocation, and accumulation depend on its speciation, which also conditions its toxicity to plants. Symptoms of Cr toxicity in plants are diverse and include decrease of seed germination, reduction of growth, decrease of yield, inhibition of enzymatic activities, impairment of photosynthesis, nutrient and oxidative imbalances, and mutagenesis.

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Chromium as an Environmental Pollutant: Insights on Induced Plant Toxicity

Direct dry seeded rice production technology and weed management in rice based systems

Impact of iron stress on biomass, yield, metabolism and quality of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Water scarcity, labor shortage, escalating fuel prices, and soil fertility problems are causing increasing interest in shifting from puddled and transplanted rice (the traditional system) to direct-seeded rice (DSR). Weed control is a serious challenge to the success of DSR. Therefore, the development of an effective weed management program for DSR is needed. Field studies conducted at research stations and in farmers fields in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Bihar states of India) from 2002 to 2008 showed that complex weed flora caused yield losses in DSR of 65_92%. Studies revealed that for the success of DSR weeds can be managed by integrated weed management (IWM) approaches, which include stale seedbed techniques. the use of competitive varieties, water management, the use of weed-free seed. hand weeding, mulching, co-culture of Sesbania, and the application of recommended herbicides. Competitive cultivars of rice (Basmati group) effectively smothered weeds compared with short-stature high-yielding varieties. Stale seedbed techniques and straw mulching were found to be effective in reducing the density of grassy and broadleaf weeds. Brown manuring (broadcasting of Sesbania along with rice seeding and killing Sesbania, by spraying 2,4-D around 30 days after seeding) or mulching reduced weed density by 37-42% compared with a sole rice crop. Rice yield was greater when Sesbania was seeded 0 and 5 days after rice seeding compared with 10 days after rice seeding and a sole rice crop. Some herbicides found effective in DSR are pendimethalin. cyhalofop-butyl, fenoxaprop-ethyl, propanil, bispyribac, penoxsulam, triclopyr, carfentrazone, halosulfuron, bensulfuron, azimsulfuron, quinclorac, clomazone. 2,4-D, chilorimuron + metsulfuron, and molinate. The integration of herbicides with one hand weeding around 45 days after seeding was effective in reducing weeds and improving yield. For season-long and broad-spectrum sustainable weed management, an integration of different herbicides and weed control measures is needed as part of an IWM strategy. Continuous monitoring of weed flora is needed to identify shifts in weed flora due to a shift from conventional puddled transplanted rice to DSR and to focus on the emerging problematic new weed species that are even more difficult to control and that are competitive in nature, such as weedy rice.

Integrated weed management, a key to success for direct-seeded rice in the Indo-Gangetic Plains

Spinach (Spinacea oleracea L. cv. ‘Banarasi’), known to be responsive to potentially toxic elements, was investigated for chromium (Cr6 +) effect on iron metabolism and water relations. After 40 days growth in sand culture, a set of plants was supplied with 100 and 400 μM Cr6 + (potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7), superimposed over the complete nutrient solution (control). Excess Cr6 + produced visual symptoms of toxicity and increased accumulation of Cr, more in roots than in leaves. Decreased concentration of chlorophylls and the activities of heme enzymes, catalase and peroxidase in excess Cr6 + may suggest interference of Cr in iron metabolism of plants. These changes associated with decrease in iron (Fe) accumulation in Cr6 + treated plants, indicate that by reducing absorption of Fe, Cr6 + impairs the Fe requiring steps of chlorophyll and heme biosynthesis. In spite of lower water saturation deficit, the leaves of Cr6 + treated plants showed a decrease in leaf water potential, associated with i...

Chromium Alters Iron Nutrition and Water Relations of Spinach

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cv. ‘Anupama’ was grown in refined sand at variable levels of cobalt (Co), i.e., 0.0001 (control), 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, 0.40, and 0.50 mM, supplied as cobalt sulfate. The symptoms of excess Co (0.50 mM) appeared at day 35. In addition to growth depression, the young leaves developed chlorosis from the apex leading toward the base; the chlorosis intensified, changed to necrosis, and the infected leaves dried and withered. Under excess Co (> 0.0001 mM), the flowers produced were fewer in number, smaller, and many failed to mature, leading to lower seed yield. Excess Co (> 0.0001 mM) decreased the biomass, seed yield (number and weight), concentration of chlorophyll, Hill reaction activity, and activity of catalase, and deteriorated the quality of produce (sugars, starch, and protein nitrogen (N)), but it increased the concentration of phenols and activity of certain enzymes, i.e., peroxidase, ribonuclease, and acid phosphatase. The concentration of Co in various par...

Physiological and Biochemical Responses of French Bean to Excess Cobalt

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