The development of most unconventional oil and gas resources relies upon subsurface injection of very large volumes of fluids, which can induce earthquakes by activating slip on a nearby fault. During the last 5 years, accelerated oilfield fluid injection has led to a sharp increase in the rate of earthquakes in some parts of North America. In the central United States, most induced seismicity is linked to deep disposal of coproduced wastewater from oil and gas extraction. In contrast, in western Canada most recent cases of induced seismicity are highly correlated in time and space with hydraulic fracturing, during which fluids are injected under high pressure during well completion to induce localized fracturing of rock. Furthermore, it appears that the maximum-observed magnitude of events associated with hydraulic fracturing may exceed the predictions of an often-cited relationship between the volume of injected fluid and the maximum expected magnitude. These findings have far-reaching implications for assessment of inducedseismicity hazards.

Hydraulic Fracturing and Seismicity in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin

[1] In this introduction, we review much of the recent work related to stress transfer, earthquake triggering, and time-dependent seismic hazard in order to provide context for the special section on these subjects. Considerable advances have been made in the past decade, and we focus on our understanding of stress transfer at various temporal and spatial scales, review recent studies of the role of fluids in earthquake triggering, describe evidence for the connection between volcanism and earthquake triggering, examine observational evidence for triggering at all scales, and finally discuss the link between earthquake triggering and time-dependent seismic hazard. We conclude by speculating on future areas of research in the next decade.

/pdf/introduction-to-special-section-stress-transfer-earthquake-2fapj4e0jz.pdf

Introduction to special section: Stress transfer, earthquake triggering, and time‐dependent seismic hazard

Borehole fluid injections are common for the development of hydrocarbon and geothermic reservoirs. Often they induce numerous microearthquakes. Spatiotemporal dynamics of such induced microseismic clouds can be used to characterize reservoirs. However, a fluid-induced seismicity can be caused by a wide range of processes. Here we show that linear pore pressure relaxation and a hydraulic fracturing are two asymptotic end members of a set of non-linear diffusional phenomena responsible for seismicity triggering. To account for the whole range of processes we propose a rather general non-linear diffusional equation describing the pore pressure evolution. This equation takes into account a possibly strong enhancement of the medium permeability. Both linear pore pressure relaxation and hydraulic fracturing can be obtained as special limiting cases of this equation. From this equation we derive the triggering front of fluid induced seismicity, which is valid in the general case of non-linear pore pressure diffusion. We demonstrate corresponding seismicity signatures on different case studies.

Fluid-induced seismicity: Pressure diffusion and hydraulic fracturing

[1] The temporal and spatial pattern of seismicity associated with reservoir water level fluctuations, injection of high-pressure fluids in deep boreholes, and seasonal groundwater recharge provide a unique setting to study the hydrological properties of the seismogenic fractures. Pore pressure diffusion is primarily responsible for the build up of fluid pressures and the onset of seismicity. The hydrologic property controlling pore pressure diffusion is hydraulic diffusivity c, which is directly related to intrinsic permeability k. By analyzing more than 90 case histories of induced seismicity, we determined the hydraulic diffusivity value of fractures associated with seismicity to lie between 0.1 and 10 m2/s. This range of values of c corresponds to a range of intrinsic permeability values between 5 × 10−16 and 5 × 10−14 m2. We call this range the seismogenic permeability ks. Fractures with ks were found to be associated with Darcian flow. Fractures with permeability less than ks were aseismic, as the pore pressure increase was negligible. In fractures with permeability larger than ks, aseismic non-Darcian flow was observed. Seismicity was uniquely associated with fractures with seismogenic permeability. Thus seismogenic permeability is an intrinsic property of fractures where pore pressure diffusion is associated with seismicity.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2006JB004665

Seismogenic permeability, ks

Although the vast majority of earthquakes that occur in the world each year have natural causes, some of these earthquakes and a number of lesser magnitude seismic events are related to human activities and are called “induced seismic events” or “induced earthquakes.” Induced seismic activity has been documented since at least the 1920s and has been attributed to a range of human activities including the impoundment of large reservoirs behind dams, controlled explosions related to mining or construction, and underground nuclear tests. In addition, energy\ntechnologies that involve injection or withdrawal of fluids from the subsurface can also create induced seismic events that can be measured and felt. Historically known induced seismicity has generally been small in both magnitude and intensity of ground shaking. Recently, several induced seismic events related to energy technology development\nprojects in the United States have drawn heightened public attention. Although none of these events resulted in loss of life or significant structural damage, their effects were felt by local residents, some of whom also experienced minor property damage. Particularly in areas where tectonic (natural) seismic activity is uncommon and energy development is ongoing, these induced seismic events, though small in scale, can be disturbing to the public and raise concern about increased seismic activity and its potential consequences. This report addresses induced seismicity that may be related to four energy development\ntechnologies that involve fluid injection or withdrawal: geothermal energy; conventional oil and gas development including enhanced oil recovery (EOR); shale gas recovery; and carbon capture and storage (CCS). These broad categories of energy technologies are divided into finer\ncategories herein (including underground waste water disposal), to show details of induced seismic events as they relate to specific aspects of each energy technology. The study arose through a request by Senator Bingaman of New Mexico to Department of Energy (DOE) Secretary Stephen Chu. The DOE was asked to engage the National Research Council (NRC) to examine the scale, scope, and consequences of seismicity induced during the injection of fluids\nrelated to energy production; to identify gaps in knowledge and research needed to advance the understanding of induced seismicity; to identify gaps in induced seismic hazard assessment methodologies and the research needed to close those gaps; and to assess options for interim steps toward best practices with regard to energy development and induced seismicity potential. The report responds to this charge and aims to provide an understanding of the nature and scale of induced seismicity caused by or likely related to energy development and guidance as to how best to proceed with safe development of these technologies while minimizing their potential to induce earthquakes that can be felt by the public.

http://absimage.aps.org/image/MAR13/MWS_MAR13-2012-020359.pdf

Induced Seismicity Potential of Energy Technologies

— We consider various cases of seismicity, induced by artificial fluid injections in boreholes. Like many other authors, we support the hypothesis that to a large extent the triggering of this seismicity is caused by a diffusive process of the pore pressure relaxation in porous (or fractured), saturated rocks. We show that if this hypothesis is correct, then the spatio-temporal distributions of the seismic events must have several specific features related to the effective permeability of the rock. As a rule the fluid injection-induced seismicity obeys such features. These features can be indications of the diffusive and even hydraulic nature of the seismicity triggering process.¶From this point of view we analyze the spatio-temporal distribution of the late aftershocks of the Antofagasta (northern Chile) 1995 earthquake. These aftershocks were concentrated in a plane, an approximately 3 km-thick spatial zone. This thin seismogenic layer is a part of the South American subduction zone. The time-distance distribution of the aftershocks along this layer indicates that they could be triggered by a diffusion-like process. Possibly, such a process is the relaxation of the pressure perturbation caused in the pore fluid by the main Antofagasta event. We estimated the permeability required to explain the spatio-temporal distribution of the aftershocks by such a triggering mechanism. The obtained value, 60 mD, is very large. However, it is realistic for a long-time existing and large-scale fault zone.

Triggering of Seismicity by Pore-pressure Perturbations: Permeability-related Signatures of the Phenomenon

Broad depth range seismic imaging of the subducted Nazca Slab, North Chile

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Triggering of Seismicity by Pore-pressure Perturbations: Permeability-related Signatures of the Phenomenon

Broad depth range seismic imaging of the subducted Nazca Slab, North Chile