Triple-junction solar cells from III–V compound semiconductors have thus far delivered the highest solar-electric conversion efficiencies. Increasing the number of junctions generally offers the potential to reach even higher efficiencies, but material quality and the choice of bandgap energies turn out to be even more importance than the number of junctions. Several four-junction solar cell architectures with optimum bandgap combination are found for lattice-mismatched III–V semiconductors as high bandgap materials predominantly possess smaller lattice constant than low bandgap materials. Direct wafer bonding offers a new opportunity to combine such mismatched materials through a permanent, electrically conductive and optically transparent interface. In this work, a GaAs-based top tandem solar cell structure was bonded to an InP-based bottom tandem cell with a difference in lattice constant of 3.7%. The result is a GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs four-junction solar cell with a new record efficiency of 44.7% at 297-times concentration of the AM1.5d (ASTM G173-03) spectrum. This work demonstrates a successful pathway for reaching highest conversion efficiencies with III–V multi-junction solar cells having four and in the future even more junctions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/pip.2475

Wafer bonded four-junction GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs concentrator solar cells with 44.7% efficiency

The highest solar cell conversion efficiencies are achieved with four-junction devices under concentrated sunlight illumination. Different cell architectures are under development, all targeting an ideal bandgap combination close to 1.9, 1.4, 1.0, and 0.7 eV. Wafer bonding is used in this work to combine materials with a significant lattice mismatch. Three cell architectures are presented using the same two top junctions of GaInP/GaAs but different infrared absorbers based on Germanium, GaSb, or GaInAs on InP. The modeled efficiency potential at 500 suns is in the range of 49–54% for all three devices, but the highest efficiency is expected for the InP-based cell. An efficiency of 46% at 508 suns was already measured by AIST in Japan for a GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs solar cell and represents the highest independently confirmed efficiency today. Solar cells on Ge and GaSb are in the development phase at Fraunhofer ISE, and the first demonstration of functional devices is presented in this paper.

Four-Junction Wafer-Bonded Concentrator Solar Cells

This report summarizes the current status of the CPV industry and is updated from previous versions to include information from the last year. New information presented at the CPV-8 conference is included along with the addition of new companies that have announced their interest in CPV, and estimates of production volumes for 2011 and 2012.

/pdf/opportunities-and-challenges-for-development-of-a-mature-1xlar2lhmx.pdf

Opportunities and Challenges for Development of a Mature Concentrating Photovoltaic Power Industry (Revision)

The highest solar cell conversion efficiencies are achieved with Four-junction devices under concentrated sunlight illumination. Different cell architectures are under development, all targeting an ideal bandgap combination close to 1.9 eV, 1.4 eV, 1.0 eV and 0.7 eV. Wafer bonding is used in this work to combine materials with a significant lattice-mismatch. Three cell architectures are presented using the same two top junctions of GaInP/GaAs but different infrared absorbers based on Germanium, GaSb or GaInAs on InP. The modelled efficiency potential at 500 suns is in the range of 49–54 % for all three devices but the highest efficiency is expected for the InP-based cell. An efficiency of 46 % at 508-suns was already measured by AIST in Japan for a GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs solar cell and represents the highest independently confirmed efficiency today. Solar cells on Ge and GaSb are in the development phase at Fraunhofer ISE and first demonstration of functional devices is presented in this paper.

Four-junction wafer bonded concentrator solar cells

This chapter discusses solar cells made of III–V semiconductors, and how they have reached efficiencies of over 46% in 2016, the highest of any photovoltaic technology to date. These high efficiencies are possible due to the ability of stacking solar cells made of different III–V semiconductors. The main focus of current research is on III–V multijunction solar cells with three or more junctions. III–V Solar cells are widely used in space applications, terrestrial concentrators as well as niche markets such as power-by-light or thermophotovoltaics. Today III–V devices find terrestrial applications only under high concentration. But III–V on silicon may be an attractive path to reduce cost and eventually penetrate this high-performance technology into conventional applications of flat-plate photovoltaics.

High-Efficiency III–V Multijunction Solar Cells

AZUR SPACE's current CPV product 3C40C is an advanced lattice‐matched In0.50Ga0.50P/In0.01Ga0.99As/Ge triple junction (3J) solar cell. Recently, efficiencies up to 41.2% (450–600×AM1.5d) have been confirmed for this 40%‐class product. This kind of solar cell structure has now reached its practical efficiency limit and went into production in 2010. AZUR offers customized cell structures, regarding size and grid design, as well as anti‐reflection coatings adapted to the individual CPV system. Integration grades from diced wafers up to assemblies, such as dense arrays, are available. Special features and production results for the 3C40C structure are presented in this work. In order to further push efficiencies beyond 42% AZUR has successfully transferred the upright metamorphic cell from Fraunhofer ISE and advances this concept now for production. First results on metamorphic 3J solar cells at AZUR SPACE and the actual potential of this concept will be discussed. A target efficiency of 42% seems to be reali...

III‐V Multijunction Solar Cells—New Lattice‐Matched Products And Development Of Upright Metamorphic 3J Cells

With the 5C46 AZUR SPACE is introducing its new CPV cell into the market. This upright metamorphic AlInGaP/InGaP/AlInGaAs/InGaAs/Ge 5-junction cell uses sub-cell materials comparable to AZUR’s 4G32 space solar cell but has an additional InGaP junction. The cell design is laid out for optimum module performance at operating conditions. As reported earlier, the bandgaps of the sub-cells have been selected to avoid the dips in the AM1.5d spectrum for cell temperatures up to 90°C. The optimization of the 5C46 has been monitored by the manufacture of 5C46-based commercial CPV modules equipped with secondary lenses and rating of these modules at Fraunhofer ISE. A very good efficiency of 31.7% at Concentrator Standard Operating Conditions (CSOC, lens array aperture) has been reached corresponding to a power boost of 17.5% compared to reference modules equipped with 3C44 cells. In the last optimization step, the thicknesses of the sub-cells have been adjusted to achieve current matching under operating conditions on module level. The paper describes the method used for modelling and the calculation of the optimum thicknesses. It involves the determination of the absolute quantum efficiency of the bare cell and accounts for the thermal band-gap shifts as well as the optical effects due to mounting of the secondary and the transmission of the primary lens. First outdoor results of modules equipped with the final 5C46 design confirm that the current-matching for operating condition on module level was successfully achieved by the described method. 

AZUR’s new 5C46 CPV cell: Final design for optimized outdoor performance

III-V Multijunction Solar Cells – From Current Space and Terrestrial Products to Modern Cell Architectures

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III‐V Multijunction Solar Cells—New Lattice‐Matched Products And Development Of Upright Metamorphic 3J Cells

AZUR’s new 5C46 CPV cell: Final design for optimized outdoor performance

III-V Multijunction Solar Cells – From Current Space and Terrestrial Products to Modern Cell Architectures