Dielectric spectroscopy as a viable biosensing tool for cell and tissue characterization and analysis.

Microsensor systems for cell metabolism are essential tools for investigation and standardization in cell culture. Electrochemical and optical read-out schemes dominate, which enable the marker-free, continuous, online recording of transient effects and deliver information beyond microscopy and end-point tests. There has been much progress in microfluidics and microsensors, but the translation of both into standard cell culture procedures is still limited. Within this critical review, we discuss different cell culture formats ranging from standard culture vessels to dedicated microfluidic platforms. Key aspects are the appropriate supply of cells, mass transport of metabolites to the sensors and generation of stimuli. Microfluidics enable the transition from static to dynamic conditions in culture and measurement. We illustrate the parameters oxygen (respiration), pH (acidification), glucose and lactate (energy metabolism) as well as short-lived reactive species (ROS/RNS) from the perspective of microsensor integration in 2D and 3D cell culture. We discuss different sensor principles and types, along with their limitations, microfabrication technologies and materials. The state-of-the-art of microsensor platforms for cell culture is discussed with respect to sensor performance, the number of parameters and timescale of application. That includes the advances from 2D culture to the increasingly important 3D approaches, with specific requirements for organotypic microtissues, spheroids and solid matrix cultures. We conclude on the current progress, potential, benefits and limitations of cell culture monitoring systems from monolayer culture to organ-on-chip systems.

/pdf/microsensor-systems-for-cell-metabolism-from-2d-culture-to-218n15lwem.pdf

Microsensor systems for cell metabolism – from 2D culture to organ-on-chip

Dielectrophoresis: an assessment of its potential to aid the research and practice of drug discovery and delivery.

There is currently a need to culture cells in 3D to better mimic the behaviour of cells growing in the natural environment. In parallel, this calls for novel technologies to assess cell growth in 3D cell culture. In this study, we demonstrated both in silico and in vitro that cell viability inside large cell spheroids could be monitored in real time and label-free with electrical impedance tomography (EIT). Simulations using a single shell model and the effective media approximation (EMA) method were performed to prove the performance of EIT on spheroid imaging and viability monitoring. Then in vitro experiments were conducted to measure in real time a loss of cell viability in MCF-7 breast cancer spheroids when exposed to Triton X-100 and validate with conventional biochemical assays. It is shown that EIT has a spatial resolution of 1.14% and it could monitor the cell mortality over 20% of a spheroid under laboratory noise level. The reconstructed conductivity images for cell mortality induced by the chemical are clear and match the result in the cellular metabolic viability assay. Furthermore, the image reconstruction speed in the experiment was less than 0.3 seconds. Taken together, the results show the potential of EIT for non-destructive real-time and label-free cellular assays in the miniature sensor, providing physiological information in the applications of 3D drug screening and tissue engineering.

/pdf/electrical-impedance-tomography-for-real-time-and-label-free-3yi6k1ksvb.pdf

Electrical impedance tomography for real-time and label-free cellular viability assays of 3D tumour spheroids.

Living cultured cells react to external influences, such as pharmaceutical agents, in an intricate manner due to their complex internal signal processing. Impedance sensing of cells on microelectrodes is a favored label-free technology to indicate cellular events, usually ascribed to morphologic alteration or changes in cellular adhesion, which is usually found in stand-alone systems that do not incorporate life support or additional sensor systems. However, only in symbiosis with metabolic activity sensing and picture documentation may a complete insight into cellular vitality be provided. This complement was created within the framework of an automated high-content screening system previously developed by our group, monitoring 24 cell culture chambers in parallel. The objective of this paper is the development of miniaturized electronics for impedance measurements and its system integration as a modular unit. In addition, it is shown how sensor electrodes were optimized by impedance matching such that spectroscopy and raw data analysis become feasible for every culture well. Undesired mechanical stress on cultured cells may arise from the medium and agent support system of the autonomous screening apparatus. This paper demonstrates how this hazard is treated with the simulation of microfluidics and impedance measurements. Physiological data are subsequently derived from the exemplary tumor cell line MCF-7 both during treatment with the agent doxorubicin and through the impact of natural killer cells. This correlates the information content of complex impedance spectra with cellular respiration as well as data from microscopy.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0967-3334/32/7/S18/pdf

Impedance sensor technology for cell-based assays in the framework of a high-content screening system

Automated platform for sensor-based monitoring and controlled assays of living cells and tissues

Living cells react to external influences such as pharmacological agents in an intricate manner due to their complex internal signal processing. Cell reactions are an impact on vitality, cell-cell or cell-matrix interaction and morphological changes. A number of published techniques on impedance spectroscopy (IS) of adherent cells with planar electrodes address these changes. However, IS can merely serve as an indicator of cellular events rather than provide detailed information on a specific cell process. Thus our approach is a 24-microwell sensor-plate with impedance-electrodes in parallel to pH- and O2-sensors, capable of being integrated into a fully automated screening system. For the purpose of IS, high precision impedance-electronics have been developed based on integrated circuits and validated against a Solartron 1260 impedance analyzer. IS data is correlated to the metabolic-sensors and additionally compared with cell images shot by an inverse optical microscope which is also part of the screening system. Proof of principle is demonstrated by experimental growth monitoring of a MCF-7 culture and cellular response to chemotherapeutics. Furthermore, the potential to monitor living tissue probes is presented for the first time.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/224/1/012141/pdf

Bioimpedance microelectronics in a 24-microwell plate with metabolic-sensors for testing chemosensitivity of tumor cells and tissues

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Impedance sensor technology for cell-based assays in the framework of a high-content screening system

Automated platform for sensor-based monitoring and controlled assays of living cells and tissues

Bioimpedance microelectronics in a 24-microwell plate with metabolic-sensors for testing chemosensitivity of tumor cells and tissues