Summary
The diets of over two-thirds of the world's population lack one or more essential mineral elements. This can be remedied through dietary diversification, mineral supplementation, food fortification, or increasing the concentrations and/or bioavailability of mineral elements in produce (biofortification). This article reviews aspects of soil science, plant physiology and genetics underpinning crop biofortification strategies, as well as agronomic and genetic approaches currently taken to biofortify food crops with the mineral elements most commonly lacking in human diets: iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I) and selenium (Se). Two complementary approaches have been successfully adopted to increase the concentrations of bioavailable mineral elements in food crops. First, agronomic approaches optimizing the application of mineral fertilizers and/or improving the solubilization and mobilization of mineral elements in the soil have been implemented. Secondly, crops have been developed with: increased abilities to acquire mineral elements and accumulate them in edible tissues; increased concentrations of ‘promoter’ substances, such as ascorbate, β-carotene and cysteine-rich polypeptides which stimulate the absorption of essential mineral elements by the gut; and reduced concentrations of ‘antinutrients’, such as oxalate, polyphenolics or phytate, which interfere with their absorption. These approaches are addressing mineral malnutrition in humans globally.

/pdf/biofortification-of-crops-with-seven-mineral-elements-often-3g2xc3trnk.pdf

Biofortification of crops with seven mineral elements often lacking in human diets--iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, selenium and iodine.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important pulse crop grown and consumed all over the world, especially in the Afro-Asian countries. It is a good source of carbohydrates and protein, and protein quality is considered to be better than other pulses. Chickpea has significant amounts of all the essential amino acids except sulphur-containing amino acids, which can be complemented by adding cereals to the daily diet. Starch is the major storage carbohydrate followed by dietary fibre, oligosaccharides and simple sugars such as glucose and sucrose. Although lipids are present in low amounts, chickpea is rich in nutritionally important unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic and oleic acids. β-Sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol are important sterols present in chickpea oil. Ca, Mg, P and, especially, K are also present in chickpea seeds. Chickpea is a good source of important vitamins such as riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, folate and the vitamin A precursor β-carotene. As with other pulses, chickpea seeds also contain anti-nutritional factors which can be reduced or eliminated by different cooking techniques. Chickpea has several potential health benefits, and, in combination with other pulses and cereals, it could have beneficial effects on some of the important human diseases such as CVD, type 2 diabetes, digestive diseases and some cancers. Overall, chickpea is an important pulse crop with a diverse array of potential nutritional and health benefits.

http://exploreit.icrisat.org/sites/default/files/uploads/1378788243_BJN_Chickpea_Paper_Gaur_etal._2012_Review.pdf

Nutritional quality and health benefits of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): a review.

Vitamins in plants: occurrence, biosynthesis and antioxidant function.

The development of linkage maps with large numbers of molecular markers has stimulated the search for methods to map genes involved in quantitative traits (QTLs). A promising method, proposed by Lander and Botstein (1989), employs pairs of neighbouring markers to obtain maximum linkage information about the presence of a QTL within the enclosed chromosomal segment. In this paper the accuracy of this method was investigated by computer simulation. The results show that there is a reasonable probability of detecting QTLs that explain at least 5% of the total variance. For this purpose a minimum population of 200 backcross or F2 individuals is necessary. Both the number of individuals and the relative size of the genotypic effect of the QTL are important factors determining the mapping precision. On the average, a QTL with 5% or 10% explained variance is mapped on an interval of 40 or 20 centiMorgans, respectively. Of course, QTLs with a larger genotypic effect will be located more precisely. It must be noted, however, that the interval length is rather variable.

Accuracy of mapping quantitative trait loci in autogamous species.

Experimental approaches targeting carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes have successfully increased the seed β-carotene content of crops. However, linkage analysis of seed carotenoids in Arabidopsis thaliana recombinant inbred populations showed that only 21% of quantitative trait loci, including those for β-carotene, encode carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes in their intervals. Thus, numerous loci remain uncharacterized and underutilized in biofortification approaches. Linkage mapping and genome-wide association studies of Arabidopsis seed carotenoids identified CAROTENOID CLEAVAGE DIOXYGENASE4 (CCD4) as a major negative regulator of seed carotenoid content, especially β-carotene. Loss of CCD4 function did not affect carotenoid homeostasis during seed development but greatly reduced carotenoid degradation during seed desiccation, increasing β-carotene content 8.4-fold relative to the wild type. Allelic complementation of a ccd4 null mutant demonstrated that single-nucleotide polymorphisms and insertions and deletions at the locus affect dry seed carotenoid content, due at least partly to differences in CCD4 expression. CCD4 also plays a major role in carotenoid turnover during dark-induced leaf senescence, with β-carotene accumulation again most strongly affected in the ccd4 mutant. These results demonstrate that CCD4 plays a major role in β-carotene degradation in drying seeds and senescing leaves and suggest that CCD4 orthologs would be promising targets for stabilizing and increasing the level of provitamin A carotenoids in seeds of major food crops.

/pdf/carotenoid-cleavage-dioxygenase4-is-a-negative-regulator-of-1qz10bvbyp.pdf

CAROTENOID CLEAVAGE DIOXYGENASE4 Is a Negative Regulator of β-Carotene Content in Arabidopsis Seeds

Chickpea is a staple protein source in many Asian and Middle Eastern countries. The seeds contain carotenoids such as beta-carotene, cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin in amounts above the engineered beta-carotene-containing “golden rice” level. Thus, breeding for high carotenoid concentration in seeds is of nutritional, socio-economic, and economic importance. To study the genetics governing seed carotenoids in chickpea, we studied the relationship between seed weight and concentrations of beta-carotene and lutein by means of high-performance liquid chromatography in segregating progeny from a cross between an Israeli cultivar and wild Cicer reticulatum Ladiz. Seeds of the cross progeny varied with respect to their carotenoid concentration (heritability estimates ranged from 0.5 to 0.9), and a negative genetic correlation was found between mean seed weight and carotenoid concentration in the F3. To determine the loci responsible for the genetic variation observed, the population was genotyped using 91 sequence tagged microsatellite site markers and two CytP450 markers to generate a genetic map consisting of nine linkage groups and a total length of 344.6 cM. Using quantitative data collected for beta-carotene and lutein concentration and seed weight of the seeds of the F2 population, we were able to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) by interval mapping. At a LOD score of 2, four QTLs for beta-carotene concentration, a single QTL for lutein concentration and three QTLs for seed weight were detected. The results of this investigation may assist in improving the nutritional quality of chickpea.

Quantitative trait loci governing carotenoid concentration and weight in seeds of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

To increase the number of polymorphic simple sequence repeat markers (SSRs) in chickpea, a genomic library was constructed, and the SSRs derived from this approach are characterized. A genomic DNA library from the chickpea genotype ICC 4958 was constructed after digesting total DNA of ICC 4958 with MBO/Sau and TaqI at University of Frankfurt, Germany. The study increases the existing SSR repertoire in chickpea, which will help to enhance the coverage of linkage maps especially in intraspecific crosses where marker polymorphism is found to be very less.

/pdf/extending-the-repertoire-of-microsatellite-markers-for-2vcriybkyq.pdf

Extending the repertoire of microsatellite markers for genetic linkage mapping and germplasm screening in chickpea

This study aimed at the development of microsatellite markers for Phaseolus vulgaris L. by two techniques: hybridization-based detection, and transfer of microsatellite markers developed for chickpea to the common bean. Small-insert genomic libraries of common bean were screened for simple sequence repeat (SSR)-containing fragments with a set of microsatellite-specific oligonucleotide probes. Twenty-five (GA)10 positive clones detected by a dinucleotide repeat probe were selected for sequencing. Sixteen of 18 primer pairs, complementary to the SSR-flanking regions and tested in eight P. vulgaris L. accessions, are polymorphic at an intra-specific level. Mendelian inheritance of the sequence-tagged microsatellite site (STMS) markers was demonstrated using a set of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) and their parents. A total of 46 chickpea STMS markers of 447 different primer combinations amplified loci in the genome of common bean. Sequencing of amplified products from Phaseolus with these primer combinations demonstrated that the sequence of microsatellite marker TA 176s proved to be significantly similar to transcription factor SCOF1 of soy bean, controlling the response to cold stress, and also to transcription factor zinc finger protein (a Kruppel-like zinc finger protein, or TFIIIA), coordinating the reaction to osmotic stress in Medicago truncatula. Sequence analysis of this site in the two common bean parental lines BAT 477 and DOR 364 revealed that the sequence of BAT 477 was 5 bp longer than the corresponding sequence of DOR 364. Amplification of this fragment in six RILs of common bean detected the existence of sequence polymorphisms between the different lines.

/pdf/locus-specific-microsatellite-markers-in-common-bean-32mcyxto2e.pdf

Locus-specific microsatellite markers in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): isolation and characterization

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Quantitative trait loci governing carotenoid concentration and weight in seeds of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Extending the repertoire of microsatellite markers for genetic linkage mapping and germplasm screening in chickpea

Locus-specific microsatellite markers in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): isolation and characterization