With the arising of global climate change and resource shortage, in recent years, increased attention has been paid to environmentally friendly materials. Trees are sustainable and renewable materials, which give us shelter and oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Trees are a primary resource that human society depends upon every day, for example, homes, heating, furniture, and aircraft. Wood from trees gives us paper, cardboard, and medical supplies, thus impacting our homes, school, work, and play. All of the above-mentioned applications have been well developed over the past thousands of years. However, trees and wood have much more to offer us as advanced materials, impacting emerging high-tech fields, such as bioengineering, flexible electronics, and clean energy. Wood naturally has a hierarchical structure, composed of well-oriented microfibers and tracheids for water, ion, and oxygen transportation during metabolism. At higher magnification, the walls of fiber cells have an interes...

https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf2016/fpl_2016_zhu001.pdf

Wood-Derived Materials for Green Electronics, Biological Devices, and Energy Applications.

We review the literature dealing with mediterranean climate, vegetation, phenology and ecophysiology relevant to the understanding of tree-ring formation in mediterranean regions. Tree rings have been used extensively in temperate regions to reconstruct responses of forests to past environmental changes. In mediterranean regions, studies of tree rings are scarce, despite their potential for understanding and predicting the effects of global change on important ecological processes such as desertification. In mediterranean regions, due to the great spatio-temporal variability of mediterranean environmental conditions, tree rings are sometimes not formed. Often, clear seasonality is lacking, and vegetation activity is not always associated with regular dormancy periods. We present examples of tree-ring morphology of five species (Arbutus unedo, Fraxinus ornus, Quercus cerris, Q. ilex, Q. pubescens) sampled in Tuscany, Italy, focusing on the difficulties we encountered during the dating. We present an interpretation of anomalies found in the wood structure and, more generally, of cambial activity in such environments. Furthermore, we propose a classification of tree-ring formation in mediterranean environments. Mediterranean tree rings can be dated and used for dendrochronological purposes, but great care should be taken in selecting sampling sites, species and sample trees.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/646D9FAA4C6EB3A6E30B9DF91D3D5157/S1464793102006000a.pdf/div-class-title-identification-measurement-and-interpretation-of-tree-rings-in-woody-species-from-mediterranean-climates-div.pdf

Identification, measurement and interpretation of tree rings in woody species from mediterranean climates

Microfibril angle (MFA) is perhaps the easiest ultrastructural variable to measure for wood cell walls, and certainly the only such variable that has been measured on a large scale. Because cellulose is crystalline, the MFA of the S2 layer can be measured by X-ray diffraction. Automated X-ray scanning devices such as SilviScan have produced large datasets for a range of timber species using increment core samples. In conifers, microfibril angles are large in the juvenile wood and small in the mature wood. MFA is larger at the base of the tree for a given ring number from the pith, and decreases with height, increasing slightly at the top tree. In hardwoods, similar patterns occur, but with much less variation and much smaller microfibril angles in juvenile wood. MFA has significant heritability, but is also influenced by environmental factors as shown by its increased values in compression wood, decreased values in tension wood and, often, increased values following nutrient or water supplementation. Adjacent individual tracheids can show moderate differences in MFA that may be related to tracheid length, but not to lumen diameter or cell wall thickness. While there has been strong interest in the MFA of the S2 layer, which dominates the axial stiffness properties of tracheids and fibres, there has been little attention given to the microfibril angles of S1 and S3 layers, which may influence collapse resistance and other lateral properties. Such investigations have been limited by the much greater difficulty of measuring angles for these wall layers. MFA, in combination with basic density, shows a strong relationship to longitudinal modulus of elasticity, and to longitudinal shrinkage, which are the main reasons for interest in this cell wall property in conifers. In hardwoods, MFA is of more interest in relation to growth stress and shrinkage behaviour.

/pdf/microfibril-angle-measurement-variation-and-relationships-a-524gkdmy8w.pdf

Microfibril Angle: Measurement, Variation and Relationships – A Review

X-ray diffraction was used to study variations in the crystallinity of wood and the average thickness and length of the crystallites of cellulose as a function of the number of the year ring in Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.]. The crystallinity increased from ring 4 to ring 10 from the pith and was constant after ring 10. The crystallinity of mature wood was about 30% ± 5%. The average thickness and average length of the crystallites were 3.2 ± 0.1 nm and 28 ± 2 nm, respectively; and no systematic variation of these values with the number of the year ring was observed. The mean microfibril angle decreased near the pith but was constant in the mature wood.

/pdf/crystallinity-of-wood-and-the-size-of-cellulose-crystallites-3ynw2n62k0.pdf

Crystallinity of wood and the size of cellulose crystallites in Norway spruce (Picea abies)

This article deals with the determination of chemical composition and the study of morphological and cell wall structure of oil palm fibers. Cellulose is the main constituent in oil palm fibers, and oil palm trunk (OPT) fiber exhibited the highest content of extractives and lignin. Fiber morphological determination also showed that OPT fibers have the highest fiber length, diameter, and cell wall thickness. Observations of fiber cell wall layers using transmisson electron microscopy at ultrastructure level confirmed that cell wall layers of oil palm fiber have a structure similar to that of wood cell wall. Analysis also focused on the determination of lignin distribution within the cell wall layers using toluidine blue. In all fiber samples, the middle lamella appeared to demonstrate a higher level of lignification compared to that of other cells.

Chemical Composition, Morphological Characteristics, and Cell Wall Structure of Malaysian Oil Palm Fibers

Trees are large engineering structures that have to withstand major wind and static forces and translocate considerable volumes of water. Natural selection has over millions of years optimised tree structure to maximise survival of the species. Naturally this process does not necessarily optimise the properties of the resultant lumber such as hardness, stiffness and strength. Such wood properties can now be improved by genetic engineering and tree breeding. If this is done without understanding the contribution of wood structure to tree survival, this can lead to increased susceptibility to windthrow, splitting and branch damage in the standing tree and internal checking and collapse during wood drying. As a first step to quantifying these potential problems this paper reviews latest findings on the nanostructure of the cell wall of softwoods and then discusses the probable relationships between microfibril directions in the secondary cell wall layers and potential threats to the survival of trees such as excessive vibration and crack propagation.

/pdf/the-nanostructure-of-the-cell-wall-of-softwoods-and-its-3etfv6jkz7.pdf

The nanostructure of the cell wall of softwoods and its functions in a living tree

The effect of air-,kiln-, and high-temperature drying on the radial permeability ofPinus radiata D. Don was studied. It was found that for both heartwood and sapwood the permeability increased as the severity of drying increased. The sapwood permeability rose from 5.3×10−14m2 for air-dried timber to 10.9×10−14 m2 for high-temperature-dried timber, an increase of approximately 100%. The rise in heartwood permeability was approximately 280%, with the air-dried permeability being 1.3×10−14 m2 and the high-temperature-dried permeability being 5.3×10−14 m2. It is considered that this higher radial permeability of high temperature-dried wood is responsible for its increased ease of impregnation with preservatives. As the predominant route for gas movement inP. radiata is the resin canal network, it is suggested that this increase in permeability is due to movement and modification of the resin. The flow through the samples was entirely laminar, with no evidence of either molecular or turbulent flow for pressure differentials from 10 to 100 kPa.

The effect of drying schedule on the radial permeability ofPinus radiata D. Don

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The nanostructure of the cell wall of softwoods and its functions in a living tree

The effect of drying schedule on the radial permeability ofPinus radiata D. Don