Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is one of the major additive manufacturing techniques that industries have adopted to produce complex metal components. The scientific and industrial literature from the past few years reveals that there is a growing demand for the development of high-strength aluminium alloys for LPBF. However, some major challenges remain for high-strength aluminium alloys, especially in relation to printability and the control of defects. Possible strategies that have been identified to achieve high strength with printability include the adaptation of existing high-strength cast and wrought alloys to LPBF, the design of new alloys specifically for LPBF, and the development of aluminium-based composites to achieve unique combinations of properties and processability. Whilst review papers exist for aluminium alloys in general for the related work up to 2019, the purpose of this paper is to review the latest developments related to high-strength aluminium alloys for LPBF up to early 2022, including alloy and process design strategies to achieve high strength without cracking. It aims to provide fresh insights into the current state-of-the-art based on a review of extensive yield strength data for a wide spectrum of aluminium alloys and tempers that have been studied and/or commercialised for LPBF. 

Review of High-Strength Aluminium Alloys for Additive Manufacturing by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

Whilst the adoption of additive manufacturing (AM) of aluminum alloys is relatively slower compared with that of steels and titanium alloys, it has undergone a flourishing trend in the past 15 years. Significant progress, such as the development of novel processes, novel alloys, novel heat treatment profiles, and applications, has been made through the combined efforts from academic and industry fields. This state-of-the art review presents a detailed overview of the process technology, microstructure, and properties of different aluminum alloys and aluminum matrix composites fabricated using various additive manufacturing technologies, including laser powder bed fusion, electron beam powder bed fusion, laser powder direct energy deposition, wire arc additive manufacturing, binder jetting, and additive friction stir deposition. The pros and cons of each technology in fabricating aluminum alloys are evaluated. As the dominant additive manufacturing technology for aluminum alloys, an emphasis is put on the laser powder bed fusion technology by reviewing the effect of various factors, such as post-heat treatment, powder feedstock, oxidation, and element evaporation, on the microstructure and properties. We close the review with the outlook listing the remaining challenges associated with additive manufacturing of aluminum alloys. 

Recent progress on the additive manufacturing of aluminum alloys and aluminum matrix composites: Microstructure, properties, and applications

Revealing the strengthening and toughening mechanisms of Al-CuO composite fabricated via in-situ solid-state reaction

• Introduced nano-TiB 2 achieves CTE transition, grain refinement and texture elimination. • The strength and ductility are improved simultaneously by the nano-TiB 2 particles. • The influence mechanisms of the nanoparticles on ductility are clarified. In the metallic components fabricated by the emerging selective laser melting (SLM) technology, most strategies used for strengthening the materials sacrifice the ductility, leading to the so-called strength-ductility trade-off. In the present study, we report that the strength and ductility of materials can be enhanced simultaneously by introducing nanoparticles, which can break the trade-off of the metallic materials. In the case of in-situ nano-TiB 2 decorated AlSi10Mg composites, the introduced nanoparticles lead to columnar-to-equiaxed transition, grain refinement and texture elimination. With increasing content of nanoparticles, the strength increases continually. Significantly, the ductility first increases and then decreases. Our results show that the ductility is controlled by the competition between the crack-induced catastrophic fracture and ductile fracture associated with dislocation activities. The first increase of ductility is mainly attributed to the suppression of crack-induced catastrophic fracture when TiB 2 nanoparticles present. With the further increase of TiB 2 nanoparticles, the subsequent decrease of ductility is mainly controlled by dislocation activities. Thus, the materials will exhibit the optimum strength and ductility combination in a certain range of TiB 2 nanoparticles. This study clarifies the physical mechanism controlling ductility for nano-TiB 2 decorated AlSi10Mg composites, which provides the insights for the design of structural materials. 

Enhancing strength and ductility of AlSi10Mg fabricated by selective laser melting by TiB2 nanoparticles

This paper aims at assessing microstructure/processing route/mechanical property correlation of a high-strength TiB2/Al–Cu–Mg–Ag aluminum alloy, namely A205 alloy, additively manufactured via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) versus the cast counter material. To this end, high magnification advanced microstructural characterization in connection with the tensile flow and strain hardening (i.e., work hardening) behavior of the materials were studied. Ambient temperature uniaxial tensile tests, based on ASTM E8/E8M, were conducted on the LPBF and cast as well as post-heat treated (T7: overaged and stabilized) materials were performed systematically. Results show a pronounced discontinuous yielding for the LPBF material along with extended ductility. The tensile curve of the LPBF T7 heat-treated material showed some plastic instabilities (Portevin–Le Chatelier effect) in the inelastic region. However, none of these phenomena were observed in the cast material, while ductility is limited. These responses were attributed to the very high cooling/solidification rates experienced by the LPBF materials, which result in a very fine equiaxed and supersaturated aluminum grain structure as compared with the coarse-grained structure of the cast counter material. 

Correlation between tensile properties, microstructure, and processing routes of an Al–Cu–Mg–Ag–TiB2 (A205) alloy: Additive manufacturing and casting

The effects of nanosized TiB2 particles on microstructural and mechanical properties of the hot extruded in-situ TiB2/Al-Cu-Li composite after T6 heat treatment are quantitatively evaluated by using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction technique and X-ray diffraction. Most TiB2 particles are aggregated together to form the particle bands. The composite develops the typical fiber textures, and paralleling to extruded direction, while the matrix alloy only develops weak and textures. The intensity and volume fraction of major texture components can increase significantly with the addition of TiB2 particles. Due to the introduction of TiB2 particles, T1 and S phases not only have higher number density, but also are smaller. In addition, the T1 phases can connect with each other to form a continuous network in the composite. The θ’ phase, identified in matrix alloy, is rarely observed in the composite. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of composite have increased by 248 MPa and 152 MPa compared with matrix alloy, respectively.

Effects of nanosized particles on microstructure and mechanical properties of an aged in-situ TiB2/Al-Cu-Li composite

Selective laser melting (SLM) of aluminium alloys is of research interest due to its potential benefits in fabricating complex components for aerospace and automotive industries. In order to improve the mechanical properties and demonstrate the credibility of selective laser melted (SLMed) Al alloys, the effects of post heat treatment on the microstructures and mechanical properties need to be studies. In the present work, the nano-TiB2 decorated Al–7Si–Cu–Mg samples were successfully fabricated using the SLM technique, and then post-treated by direct ageing and conventional T6 heat treatment. The as-built TiB2/Al–7Si–Cu–Mg sample exhibits fine equiaxed grain structures without preferred crystallographic texture due to the high cooling rate of SLM and the addition of nano-TiB2 particles. Nano-scale eutectic Si cells are present within the equiaxed grains. Inside the cells, there are dislocation tangles without precipitates. After direct ageing treatment, the grain and cell structures remain almost unchanged, and the new Al2Cu, Mg2Si, and Si phases are formed around the dislocations. While after T6 treatment, the fine grains grow up and the eutectic Si phases coarse leading to the broken of cell structures. Besides, the as-built TiB2/Al–7Si–Cu–Mg samples show high tensile strength and ductility (yield strength: 297.2 MPa, ultimate tensile strength: 474.6 MPa, elongation: 13.4%). During ageing, the yield strength is enhanced by ~35% due to precipitation hardening effect. While the broken of fine microstructure during T6 leads to the decrease of yield strength by ~16%. The microstructure development and preliminary strengthening mechanism were discussed. The effect of post-heat treatments can yield the SLMed TiB2/Al–7Si–Cu–Mg samples with appropriate mechanical properties, promoting a wide range of applications.

Microstructure, heat treatment and mechanical properties of TiB2/Al–7Si–Cu–Mg alloy fabricated by selective laser melting

The precipitation behaviors and mechanical properties of the slowly-quenched 7085Al alloy subjected to various aging treatments were studied by multi-scale microstructural and mechanical properties characterization techniques. There were coarse quench-induced precipitates (QIPs) including η phases and lath-shaped S phases identified at grain boundaries and Al3Zr particle interfaces during the slow quenching process. Both precipitate free zone and precipitate rich zone were characterized in the slowly-quenched samples after various aging treatments. It was found that the average size of the age-induced precipitates (AIPs) after the double-step aging treatment (D3) was finer, and the number density of the AIPs was larger than those after the single-step aging treatment (S1). Meanwhile, the precipitate free zones around the coarse QIPs and at grain boundaries became narrower in the D3 sample. Critically, the heterogeneous nucleation of η′ phase on the lath-shaped S phase which was previously unreported has been characterized. The orientation relationship between the η’ phase and S phase was determined, and the detailed mechanism was discussed based on heterogeneous nucleation theory. Furthermore, the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the D3 sample increased by ∼94.4 MPa and ∼65.9 MPa over the S1 sample, respectively. Finally, the underlying mechanisms of such yield strength variations were discussed. The mixture rule was used to model this microstructure-mechanical property relationship quantitatively, in which the calculated results showed the good agreement with the measured results.

Improved microstructures and mechanical properties for 7085Al alloy subjected to slow quenching by aging treatment

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Papers

Effects of nanosized particles on microstructure and mechanical properties of an aged in-situ TiB2/Al-Cu-Li composite

Microstructure, heat treatment and mechanical properties of TiB2/Al–7Si–Cu–Mg alloy fabricated by selective laser melting

Enhancing strength and ductility of AlSi10Mg fabricated by selective laser melting by TiB2 nanoparticles

Improved microstructures and mechanical properties for 7085Al alloy subjected to slow quenching by aging treatment