Ionic liquids are remarkable chemical compounds, which find applications in many areas of modern science. Because of their highly tunable nature and exceptional properties, ionic liquids have become essential players in the fields of synthesis and catalysis, extraction, electrochemistry, analytics, biotechnology, etc. Apart from physical and chemical features of ionic liquids, their high biological activity has been attracting significant attention from biochemists, ecologists, and medical scientists. This Review is dedicated to biological activities of ionic liquids, with a special emphasis on their potential employment in pharmaceutics and medicine. The accumulated data on the biological activity of ionic liquids, including their antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties, are discussed in view of possible applications in drug synthesis and drug delivery systems. Dedicated attention is given to a novel active pharmaceutical ingredient-ionic liquid (API-IL) concept, which suggests using traditional drugs in ...

Biological Activity of Ionic Liquids and Their Application in Pharmaceutics and Medicine.

The greater abundances of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in point-of-use tap and reclaimed water than that in freshly treated water raise the question whether residual disinfectants in distribution systems facilitate the spread of ARGs. This study investigated three widely used disinfectants (free chlorine, chloramine, and hydrogen peroxide) on promoting ARGs transfer within Escherichia coli strains and across genera from Escherichia coli to Salmonella typhimurium. The results demonstrated that subinhibitory concentrations (lower than minimum inhibitory concentrations [MICs]) of these disinfectants, namely 0.1–1 mg/L Cl2 for free chlorine, 0.1–1 mg/L Cl2 for chloramine, and 0.24–3 mg/L H2O2, led to concentration-dependent increases in intragenera conjugative transfer by 3.4–6.4, 1.9–7.5, and 1.4–5.4 folds compared with controls, respectively. By comparison, the intergenera conjugative frequencies were slightly increased by approximately 1.4–2.3 folds compared with controls. However, exposure to disinf...

Subinhibitory Concentrations of Disinfectants Promote the Horizontal Transfer of Multidrug Resistance Genes within and across Genera

The importance of biodegradation data as part of the design of safer chemicals is presented using ionic liquids (ILs) as a model study. Structural features that promote/impede IL biodegradation, IL design strategies, methods of biodegradation analysis, properties of IL/surfactant derivatives and computational methods of predicting biodegradation are discussed. The importance of metabolite studies as part of biodegradation assays is highlighted. The relevance of applying the lessons learned developing biodegradable ILs to other chemical classes is proposed. A comprehensive appendix of IL biodegradation data published since 2010 (∼300 ILs) has been compiled.

/pdf/biodegradation-of-ionic-liquids-a-critical-review-1f78e7cxix.pdf

Biodegradation of ionic liquids – a critical review

Antibiotic resistance is a severe global threat for public health, causing around 700,000 deaths per year. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is one of the most significant pathways to disseminate antibiotic resistance. It is commonly acknowledged that sub-minimum inhibition concentrations of antibiotics are major contributors in promoting antibiotic resistance through HGT. Pharmaceuticals are occurring in our environments at increased levels, yet little is known whether non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals cause or accelerate the dissemination of antibiotic resistance. Here, we report for the first time that the antiepileptic drug, carbamazepine, promotes conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. It was seen that environmentally relevant concentrations of carbamazepine (e.g., 0.05 mg/L) significantly enhanced the conjugative transfer of multiresistance genes carried by plasmid within and across bacterial genera. The underlying mechanisms of the enhanced HGT were revealed by detecting oxidative stress and cell membrane permeability, in combination with MinION DNA sequencing, genome-wide RNA sequencing, and proteomic analysis. Carbamazepine induced a series of acute responses, including increased levels of reactive oxygen species, the SOS response; increased cell membrane permeability, and pilus generation. Expressional levels of genes related to these processes were significantly upregulated during carbamazepine exposure. Given that HGT occurs widely among different species in various environments, these findings are an early warning for a wide assessment of the roles of non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals in the spread of antibiotic resistance.

/pdf/antiepileptic-drug-carbamazepine-promotes-horizontal-1kkb37n7c7.pdf

Antiepileptic drug carbamazepine promotes horizontal transfer of plasmid-borne multi-antibiotic resistance genes within and across bacterial genera.

Both silver ions and silver nanoparticles facilitate the horizontal transfer of plasmid-mediated antibiotic resistance genes.

Ionic liquids (ILs), as “environmentally friendly” replacements for industrial volatile organic solvents, have been widely and recently applied in the chemical industry. However, few data have been collected regarding the toxicity and potential environmental effects of ILs, which are fairly important for preparing for their potential release into the environment. In this study, the IL 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([BMIm][PF6]) was tested for its ability to promote the proliferation and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in environmental bacteria. In freshwater microcosms, [BMIm][PF6] (0.5 g/L) significantly enhanced the abundance of the sulI gene (500-fold greater than in untreated controls). Meanwhile, [BMIm][PF6] significantly increased the abundance of class I integrons, which play a key role in ARG dissemination. A positive correlation (p < 0.01) between the intI and sulI genes suggested that [BMIm][PF6]-facilitated sulI propagation was mediated by class I integrons...

An Ionic Liquid Facilitates the Proliferation of Antibiotic Resistance Genes Mediated by Class I Integrons

Correction to An Ionic Liquid Facilitates the Proliferation of Antibiotic Resistance Genes Mediated by Class I Integrons

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have become a global health concern. In our previous study, an ionic liquid (IL) 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([BMIm][PF6]) had been proven to facilitate the dissemination of ARGs in the environment. However, enhanced alkyl group chain length or the substitution of alkyl groups with the cation ring corresponded with increased antimicrobial effects. In this study, we investigated how different structures of ILs with 4, 6, and 8 C atoms in the longer alkyl chain on the imidazolium cations facilitated the dissemination of ARGs. The promotion of plasmid RP4 transfer frequency decreased with [CnMIM][BF4] increasing the alkyl chain length from 4 carbon atoms to 8 carbon atoms on the imidazolium cations, which is observed with [BMIM][BF4] (n = 4, 5.9 fold) > HMIM][BF4] (n = 6, 2.2 fold) > [OMIM][BF4] (n = 8, 1.7 fold). This illustrates that [CnMIM][BF4] with increasing the alkyl chain length exert decreasing ability in facilitating plasmid RP4 horizontal transfer, which is possibly related to IL-structure dependent toxicity. The IL-structure dependent plasmid RP4 transfer frequency was attributable to bacterial cell membrane permeability weaken with increasing alkyl chain length of [CnMIM][PF4], which was evidenced by flow cytometry. In freshwater microcosm, [CnMIm][BF4] promoted the relative abundance of the sulI and intI genes for 4.6 folds, aphA and traF for 5.2 folds higher than the untreated groups, promoting the propagation of ARGs in the aquatic environment. This is the first report that ILs with different structure of varying alkyl chain length facilitate horizontal transfer of plasmid RP4 which is widely distributed in the environment, and thus add the adverse effects of the environmental risk of ILs.

/pdf/the-horizontal-transfer-of-antibiotic-resistance-genes-is-2twpkbynxk.pdf

The horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes is enhanced by ionic liquid with different structure of varying alkyl chain length.

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An Ionic Liquid Facilitates the Proliferation of Antibiotic Resistance Genes Mediated by Class I Integrons

Correction to An Ionic Liquid Facilitates the Proliferation of Antibiotic Resistance Genes Mediated by Class I Integrons

The horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes is enhanced by ionic liquid with different structure of varying alkyl chain length.