Hard carbon (HC) is recognized as a promising anode material with outstanding electrochemical performance for alkali metal-ion batteries including lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), as well as their analogs sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) and potassium-ion batteries (PIBs). Herein, a comprehensive review of the recent research is presented to interpret the challenges and opportunities for the applications of HC anodes. The ion storage mechanisms, materials design, and electrolyte optimizations for alkali metal-ion batteries are illustrated in-depth. HC is particularly promising as an anode material for SIBs. The solid-electrolyte interphase, initial Coulombic efficiency, safety concerns, and all-climate performances, which are vital for practical applications, are comprehensively discussed. Furthermore, commercial prototypes of SIBs based on HC anodes are extensively elaborated. The remaining challenges and research perspectives are provided, aiming to shed light on future research and early commercialization of HC-based SIBs.

Hard carbon anodes: fundamental understanding and commercial perspectives for Na-ion batteries beyond Li-ion and K-ion counterparts

Understanding and improving the initial Coulombic efficiency of high-capacity anode materials for practical sodium ion batteries

The urgent need for optimizing the available energy through smart grids and efficient large-scale energy storage systems is pushing the construction and deployment of Li-ion batteries in the MW range which, in the long term, are expected to hit the GW dimension while demanding over 1000 ton of positive active material per system. This amount of Li-based material is equivalent to almost 1% of current Li consumption and can strongly influence the evolution of the lithium supply and cost. Given this uncertainty, it becomes mandatory to develop an energy storage technology that depends on almost infinite and widespread resources: Na-ion batteries are the best technology for large-scale applications. With small working cells in the market that cannot compete in cost ($/W h) with commercial Li-ion batteries, the consolidation of Na-ion batteries mainly depends on increasing their energy density and stability, the negative electrodes being at the heart of these two requirements. Promising Na-based negative electrodes for large-scale battery applications are reviewed, along with the study of the solid electrolyte interphase formed in the anode surface, which is at the origin of most of the stability problems.

Na‐Ion Batteries for Large Scale Applications: A Review on Anode Materials and Solid Electrolyte Interphase Formation

High-capacity anode materials are one of the bottlenecks to further improve the energy density of Na-ion batteries (NIBs). Except for introducing more defects to increase the sloping capacity, tuni...

Tuning the Closed Pore Structure of Hard Carbons with the Highest Na Storage Capacity

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have shown promising prospects for complementarity to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in the field of grid-scale energy storage. After a decade of continuous fundamental research on SIBs, it's becoming increasingly urgent to advance the commercialization. For SIB anode materials, hard carbon is the most mature and currently the only material likely to be commercialized, but it is still far away from large-scale industrialization. Herein, we carry out a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art in terms of three main aspects. Firstly, a fundamental understanding of the microstructure and sodium storage mechanism of hard carbon is introduced, which can be categorized into three different processes: capacitive adsorption, nanopore filling, and intercalation in carbon interlayers. Then, based on an in-depth understanding of the sodium storage mechanism, optimization methods in terms of increasing the specific capacity, rate performance, initial coulombic efficiency (ICE), and long-cycling stability are comprehensively summarized and analyzed. Finally, potential methods and associated benefits for the design of carbon structures and the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) are discussed, hoping to provide useful guidelines for future research and commercialization.

Hard carbon for sodium storage: mechanism and optimization strategies toward commercialization

Commercial activated carbon as a novel precursor of the amorphous carbon for high-performance sodium-ion batteries anode

Electrochemical performance of fulvic acid-based electrospun hard carbon nanofibers as promising anodes for sodium-ion batteries

High-Performance Anode of Sodium Ion Battery from Polyacrylonitrile/Humic Acid Composite Electrospun Carbon Fibers

Air oxidation is introduced as a simple and feasible method of modification for mesocarbon microbeads (MCMBs), which improves the electrochemical performance of MCMBs as anodes for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Optimal oxidation conditions are explored. Green MCMBs, initially oxidized at 360 °C then carbonized (OC-MCMB360), exhibit a high reversible capacity up to 286 mAh g−1 at a current density of 25 mA g−1. In addition, the OC-MCMB360 sample also presents an excellent rate performance with 79 mAh g−1 at a current density of 3.2 A g−1 and a considerable reversible capacity of 166 mAh g−1 after 100 cycles at 100 mA g−1. The larger interlayer spacing and increased defect sites caused by oxidation contribute to the enhanced electrochemical performance of oxidized MCMBs in SIBs.

Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Mesocarbon-Microbeads-Based Anodes through Air Oxidation for Sodium-Ion Batteries

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Commercial activated carbon as a novel precursor of the amorphous carbon for high-performance sodium-ion batteries anode

Electrochemical performance of fulvic acid-based electrospun hard carbon nanofibers as promising anodes for sodium-ion batteries

High-Performance Anode of Sodium Ion Battery from Polyacrylonitrile/Humic Acid Composite Electrospun Carbon Fibers

Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Mesocarbon-Microbeads-Based Anodes through Air Oxidation for Sodium-Ion Batteries