Fiber–optic sensors have been widely deployed in various applications, and their use has gradually increased since the 1980 s. Distributed fiber–optic sensors, which enable continuous and real–time measurements along the entire length of an optical fiber cable, have undergone significant improvements in underlying industries. In the oil and gas industry, distributed fiber–optic sensors can provide significantly valuable information throughout the life cycle of a well and can monitor pipelines transporting hydrocarbons over great distances. Here, we review the deployment of fiber–optic Rayleigh–based distributed acoustic sensing (DAS), Raman–based distributed temperature sensing (DTS), and Brillouin–based distributed temperature and strain sensing (DTSS) in the oil and gas industry. In particular, we describe the operation principle and basic experimental setups of the DAS, DTS, and DTSS, highlighting their applications in the upstream, midstream, and downstream sectors of the oil and gas industry. We further developed a prototype of a fiber–optic hybrid DAS–DTS system that simultaneously measures vibration and temperature along a multimode fiber (MMF). The reported hybrid sensing system was tested in an operational oil well. This work also discusses the challenges that might hinder the growth of the distributed fiber–optic sensing market in the petroleum industry, and we further point out the future directions of related research.

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A Review of Distributed Fiber–Optic Sensing in the Oil and Gas Industry

In oil and gas drilling or geothermal well drilling, the temperature difference between the drilling fluid and formation will lead to an apparent temperature change around the borehole, which will influence the stress state around the borehole and tend to cause borehole instability in high geothermal gradient formations. The thermal effect is usually not considered as a factor in most of the conventional borehole stability models. In this research, in order to solve the borehole instability in high-temperature formations, a calculation model of the temperature field around the borehole during drilling is established. The effects of drilling fluid circulation, drilling fluid density, and mud displacement on the temperature field are analyzed. Besides these effects, the effect of temperature change on the stress around the borehole is analyzed based on thermoelasticity theory. In addition, the relationships between temperature and strength of four types of rocks are respectively established based on experimental results, and thermal expansion coefficients are also tested. On this basis, a borehole stability model is established considering thermal effects and the effect of temperature change on borehole stability is also analyzed. The results show that the fracture pressure and collapse pressure will both increase as the temperature of borehole rises, and vice versa. The fracture pressure is more sensitive to temperature. Temperature has different effects on collapse pressures due to different lithological characters; however, the variation of fracture pressure is unrelated to lithology. The research results can provide a reference for the design of drilling fluid density in high-temperature wells.

Borehole Stability in High-Temperature Formations

Emulsified acid systems for oil well stimulation: A review

Horizontal layered formations with a suite of vertical or near-vertical fractures are usually assumed to be an approximate orthotropic medium and are more suitable for estimating fracture p...

Model parameterization and amplitude variation with angle and azimuthal inversion in orthotropic media

New Generation of Petroleum Workflow Automation: Philosophy and Practice

Understanding Overpressure Trends Helps Optimize Well Planning and Field Development in a Tectonically Active Area in Kuwait

Multiple Reservoir Simulations Integration: An Alternative to Full Field Simulation in the North Kuwait Jurassic Complex

Combination of Chemical Diverters and Degradable Fiber Technology Enhances the Success of Stimulation in Complex Carbonate Environments

Prestack anisotropic (orthotropic symmetry) AVAz inversion of full-azimuth 3D seismic data for fracture characterization of the upper Najmah Formation in northern Kuwait was conducted. This formation comprises a thin, tight, naturally fractured carbonate overlying a kerogen-rich shale source rock. The inversion methodology uses an orthotropic system of symmetry that is appropriate for analysis of vertical transverse isotropic (VTI) anisotropic rock layers containing swarms of aligned vertical fractures. Measured seismic amplitudes show good agreement with synthetic models created at different well locations, indicating reliable representation of fractures in amplitude data. Inversion results show good agreement with well and drilling data. Rock-physics modeling shows a relationship between elastic properties and seismic anisotropy and between elastic properties and reservoir properties, such as porosity and fracture density.

Application of prestack orthotropic AVAz inversion for fracture characterization of a deep carbonate reservoir in northern Kuwait

Digital Oilfield Implementation in High Pressure High Temperature Sour Gas Environment: Kuwait Oil Company Challenges & Guidelines

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