Differentiation and secondary metabolism are correlated processes in fungi that respond to light. In
Aspergillus nidulans
, light inhibits sexual reproduction as well as secondary metabolism. We identified
the heterotrimeric
velvet
complex VelB/VeA/LaeA connecting light-responding developmental
regulation and control of secondary metabolism. VeA, which is primarily expressed in the dark,
physically interacts with VelB, which is expressed during sexual development. VeA bridges VelB to the
nuclear master regulator of secondary metabolism, LaeA. Deletion of either
velB
or
veA
results in
defects in both sexual fruiting-body formation and the production of secondary metabolites.

VelB/VeA/LaeA Complex CoordinatesLight Signal with Fungal Developmentand Secondary Metabolism

Aflatoxins produced by the Aspergillus species are highly toxic, carcinogenic, and cause severe contamination to food sources, leading to serious health consequences. Contaminations by aflatoxins have been reported in food and feed, such as groundnuts, millet, sesame seeds, maize, wheat, rice, fig, spices and cocoa due to fungal infection during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Besides these food products, commercial products like peanut butter, cooking oil and cosmetics have also been reported to be contaminated by aflatoxins. Even a low concentration of aflatoxins is hazardous for human and livestock. The identification and quantification of aflatoxins in food and feed is a major challenge to guarantee food safety. Therefore, developing feasible, sensitive and robust analytical methods is paramount for the identification and quantification of aflatoxins present in low concentrations in food and feed. There are various chromatographic and sensor-based methods used for the detection of aflatoxins. The current review provides insight into the sources of contamination, occurrence, detection techniques, and masked mycotoxin, in addition to management strategies of aflatoxins to ensure food safety and security.

/pdf/aflatoxins-in-food-and-feed-an-overview-on-prevalence-1sh8oa6frc.pdf

Aflatoxins in Food and Feed: An Overview on Prevalence, Detection and Control Strategies.

Cardiovascular diseases account for the highest mortality globally, but recent advances in wearable technologies may potentially change how these illnesses are diagnosed and managed. In particular, continuous monitoring of cardiovascular vital signs for early intervention is highly desired. To this end, flexible wearable sensors that can be comfortably worn over long durations are gaining significant attention. In this review, advanced flexible wearable sensors for monitoring cardiovascular vital signals are outlined and discussed. Specifically, the functional materials, configurations, mechanisms, and recent advances of these flexible sensors for heart rate, blood pressure, blood oxygen saturation, and blood glucose monitoring are highlighted. Different mechanisms in bioelectric, mechano-electric, optoelectric, and ultrasonic wearable sensors are presented to monitor cardiovascular vital signs from different body locations. Present challenges, possible strategies, and future directions of these wearable sensors are also discussed. With rapid development, these flexible wearable sensors will potentially be applicable for both medical diagnosis and daily healthcare use in tackling cardiovascular diseases.

Flexible Wearable Sensors for Cardiovascular Health Monitoring.

This review aims to update the main aspects of aflatoxin production, occurrence and incidence in selected countries, and associated aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Means to reduce aflatoxin incidence in crops were also presented, with an emphasis on the environmentally-friendly technology using atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are unavoidable widespread natural contaminants of foods and feeds with serious impacts on health, agricultural and livestock productivity, and food safety. They are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus species distributed on three main sections of the genus (section Flavi, section Ochraceorosei, and section Nidulantes). Poor economic status of a country exacerbates the risk and the extent of crop contamination due to faulty storage conditions that are usually suitable for mold growth and mycotoxin production: temperature of 22 to 29 °C and water activity of 0.90 to 0.99. This situation paralleled the prevalence of high liver cancer and the occasional acute aflatoxicosis episodes that have been associated with these regions. Risk assessment studies revealed that Southeast Asian (SEA) and Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries remain at high risk and that, apart from the regulatory standards revision to be more restrictive, other actions to prevent or decontaminate crops are to be taken for adequate public health protection. Indeed, a review of publications on the incidence of aflatoxins in selected foods and feeds from countries whose crops are classically known for their highest contamination with aflatoxins, reveals that despite the intensive efforts made to reduce such an incidence, there has been no clear tendency, with the possible exception of South Africa, towards sustained improvements. Nonetheless, a global risk assessment of the new situation regarding crop contamination with aflatoxins by international organizations with the required expertise is suggested to appraise where we stand presently.

https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/4/1215/pdf

Aflatoxins: Producing-Molds, Structure, Health Issues and Incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African Countries.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp., known for their hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic activity in humans and animals. AF contamination of staple food commodities is a global concern due to their toxicity and the economic losses they cause. Different strategies have been applied to reduce fungal contamination and AF production. Among them, the use of natural, plant-derived compounds is emerging as a promising strategy to be applied to control both Aspergillus spoilage and AF contamination in food and feed commodities in an integrated pre- and postharvest management. In particular, phenols, aldehydes, and terpenes extracted from medicinal plants, spices, or fruits have been studied in depth. They can be easily extracted, they are generally recognized as safe (GRAS), and they are food-grade and act through a wide variety of mechanisms. This review investigated the main compounds with antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic activity, also elucidating their physiological role and the different modes of action and synergies. Plant bioactive compounds are shown to be effective in modulating Aspergillus spp. contamination and AF production both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, their application in pre- and postharvest management could represent an important tool to control aflatoxigenic fungi and to reduce AF contamination.

/pdf/plant-bioactive-compounds-in-pre-and-postharvest-management-3bvazn7wwo.pdf

Plant Bioactive Compounds in Pre- and Postharvest Management for Aflatoxins Reduction.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), the predominant and most carcinogenic naturally polyketide, is mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Cinnamaldehyde has been reported for inhibiting the growth and aflatoxin biosynthesis in A. flavus. But its molecular mechanism of action still remains largely ambiguous. Here, the anti-aflatoxigenic mechanism of cinnamaldehyde in A. flavus was investigated via a comparative transcriptomic analysis. The results indicated that twenty five of thirty genes in aflatoxin cluster showed down-regulation by cinnamaldehyde although the cluster regulators aflR and aflS were slightly up-regulated. This may be due to the up-regulation of the oxidative stress-related genes srrA, msnA and atfB being caused by the significant down-regulation of the diffusible factor FluG. Cinnamaldehyde also inhibited aflatoxin formation by perturbing GPCRs and oxylipins normal function, cell wall biosynthesis and redox equilibrium. In addition, accumulation of NADPH due to up-regulation of pentose phosphate pathway drove acetyl-CoA to lipids synthesis rather than polyketides. Both GO and KEGG analysis suggested that pyruvate and phenylalanine metabolism, post-transcriptional modification and key enzymes biosynthesis might be involved in the suppression of AFB1 production by cinnamaldehyde. This study served to decipher the anti-aflatoxigenic properties of cinnamaldehyde in A. flavus and provided powerful evidence for its use in practice.

/pdf/the-anti-aflatoxigenic-mechanism-of-cinnamaldehyde-in-4i5gtmdfw9.pdf

The anti-aflatoxigenic mechanism of cinnamaldehyde in Aspergillus flavus.

Interaction of water activity and temperature on the growth, gene expression and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus on paddy and polished rice.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, is the most toxic and hepatocarcinogenic polyketide known. Chemical fungicides are currently utilized to reduce this fungal contaminant, but they are potentially harmful to human health and the environment. Therefore, natural anti-aflatoxigenic products are used as sustainable alternatives to control food and feed contamination. For example, eugenol, presents in many essential oils, has been identified as an aflatoxin inhibitor. However, its exact mechanism of inhibition is yet to be clarified. In this study, the anti-aflatoxigenic mechanism of eugenol in A. flavus was determined using a comparative transcriptomic approach. Twenty of twenty-nine genes in the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway were down-regulated by eugenol. The most strongly down-regulated gene was aflMa, followed by aflI, aflJ, aflCa, aflH, aflNa, aflE, aflG, aflM, aflD, and aflP. However, the expression of the regulator gene aflR did not change significantly and the expression of aflS was slightly up-regulated. The down-regulation of the global regulator gene veA resulted in the up-regulation of srrA, and the down-regulation of ap-1 and mtfA. The early developmental regulator brlA was profoundly up-regulated in A. flavus after eugenol treatment. These results suggested a model in which eugenol improves fungal development by up-regulating the expression of brlA by the suppression of veA expression and inhibits aflatoxin production through the suppression of veA expression. Exposure to eugenol also caused dysregulated transcript levels of the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and oxylipins genes. A Gene Ontology analysis indicated that the genes that were highly responsive to eugenol were mainly enriched in RNA-binding functions, suggesting that post-transcriptional modification plays a pivotal role in aflatoxin biosynthesis. KEGG analysis showed that ribosome biogenesis was the most dysregulated pathway, suggesting that eugenol dysregulates ribosome biogenesis, which then interrupts the biosynthesis of Nor-1, Ver-1, and OmtA, and prevents aflatoxisomes performing their normal function in aflatoxin production. In conclusion, our results indicated that eugenol inhibited AFB1 production by modulating the expression of structural genes in aflatoxin pathway, fungal antioxidant status, post-transcriptional modifications and biosynthesis of backbone enzymes in A. flavus.

/pdf/large-scale-comparative-analysis-of-eugenol-induced-454w4h2btz.pdf

Large-Scale Comparative Analysis of Eugenol-Induced/Repressed Genes Expression in Aspergillus flavus Using RNA-seq.

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The anti-aflatoxigenic mechanism of cinnamaldehyde in Aspergillus flavus.

Interaction of water activity and temperature on the growth, gene expression and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus on paddy and polished rice.

Large-Scale Comparative Analysis of Eugenol-Induced/Repressed Genes Expression in Aspergillus flavus Using RNA-seq.