Under current assumptions, the structural representation of a clause consists of three kinds of structural layers, each layer an instantiation of the X-bar schema: 

1.

The lexical layer, headed by the verb, the structural layer in which theta assignment takes place.




2.

The inflectional layer, headed by functional heads corresponding to concrete or abstract morphological specifications on the verb, and responsible for the licensing of argumental features such as case and agreement.




3.

The complementizer layer, typically headed by a free functional morpheme, and hosting topics and various operator-like elements such as interrogative and relative pronouns, focalized elements, etc.






In the mid eighties, each layer was identified with a single X-bar projection (VP, IP, CP), but this assumption quickly turned out to be too simplistic. Under the impact of Pollock’s (1989) influential analysis of verb movement, IP dissolved into a series of functional projections, each corresponding to system (Agr, T, Asp,…). Kayne’s (1984) binary branching hypothesis naturally led to the postulation of multiple VP layers for multi-argument verbs, e.g. along the lines of Larson (1988) and much related work.

The Fine Structure of the Left Periphery

The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition

Extensively revised and updated, this second edition provides, in an A-Z format, an analysis of the most important generalizations that have been made on the unidirectional change of grammatical forms and constructions. Based on the analysis of more than 1,000 languages, it reconstructs over 500 processes of grammatical change in the languages of the world, including East Asian languages such as Chinese, Korean and Japanese. Readers are provided with the tools to discover how lexical and grammatical meanings can be related to one another in a principled way, how such issues as polysemy, heterosemy, and transcategoriality are dealt with, and why certain linguistic forms have simultaneous lexical and grammatical functions. Definitions of lexical concepts are provided with examples from a broad variety of languages, and references to key relevant research literature. Linguists and other scholars will gain a better understanding of languages on a worldwide scale.

/pdf/world-lexicon-of-grammaticalization-20jp10wyuv.pdf

World Lexicon of grammaticalization

This article argues that language teaching would benefit by paying attention to the L2 user rather than concentrating primarily on the native speaker. It suggests ways in which language teaching can apply an L2 user model and exploit the students' L1. Because L2 users differ from monolingual native speakers in their knowledge of their L2s and Lls and in some of their cognitive processes, they should be considered as speakers in their own right, not as approximations to monolingual native speakers. In the classroom, teachers can recognise this status by incorporating goals based on L2 users in the outside world, bringing L2 user situations and roles into the classroom, deliberately using the students' L1 in teaching activities, and looking to descriptions of L2 users or L2 learners rather than descriptions of native speakers as a source of information. The main benefits of recognising that L2 users are speakers in the own right, however, will come from students' and teachers' having a positive image of L2 users rather than seeing them as failed native speakers. Language professionals often take for granted that the only appropriate models of a language's use come from its native speakers. Linguists look at the intuitions of native speakers or collect quantities of their speech; language teachers encourage students to be like native speakers. This article argues that the prominence of the native speaker in language teaching has obscured the distinctive nature of the successful L2 user and created an unattainable goal for L2 learners. It recommends that L2 users be viewed as multicompetent language users rather than as deficient native speakers and suggests how language teaching can recognise students as L2 users both in and out of the classroom.

/pdf/going-beyond-the-native-speaker-in-language-teaching-1jddqjg77o.pdf

Going Beyond the Native Speaker in Language Teaching

Rules and Representations

Other Languages of Europe

/pdf/serial-verbs-in-the-creole-languages-u0uejq7mzz.pdf

Serial Verbs in the Creole Languages

Two Linguistic Systems in Contact: Grammar, Phonology, and Lexicon

One of the most striking findings to emerge from the various studies of foreigner talk (FT) is the variability in the FT characteristics observed and in the frequency with which they are reported to occur. In studies of FT based on native speakers' introspections about how they would address foreigners, every sentence produced contains some of the familiar FT characteristics — deletions, grammatical simplification, lexical analysis, etc. (Ferguson, 1975; Workgroup on Foreign Workers' Language, 1978). In other studies, in which foreign adults were actually engaged in conversation by native speakers, some researchers have reported considerable use of FT as well as imitation of the foreigners' mistakes (Hatch, Shapira and Gough, 1975; Workgroup on Foreign Workers' Language, 1978), whereas some report no use of FT characteristics (Campbell, Schlue and VanderBrook, 1977) and others report that the speech for foreigners is simplified but find no use of incorrect deletions or mirroring of foreigners' mistakes (Gaskill, Campbell and VanderBrook, 1977). How can these differences among the various findings be explained? One obvious source of variance is the foreign addressee. It may be that foreigners who are perceived as relatively high status, intelligent or the social equal of the native speaker are not addressed with the more extreme FT characteristics, which are reserved for lower-status foreigners. In addition, the perceived second-language ability of the foreigner may be of crucial importance. Foreigners who seem to understand more or whose second-language production is relatively unaccented may elicit fewer foreigner talk characteristics. A second possible source of variance is the native speaker. Some personality types may be more prone to producing FT than others. Alternately, native speakers who have had considerable experience with foreigners may

/pdf/the-interactional-origins-of-foreigner-talk-municipal-oiyar66gu6.pdf

The interactional origins of foreigner talk : municipal employees and foreign workers

Response to a target article by Samuel David Epstein, Suzanne Flynn, Gita Martohardjono: Second language acquisition: theoretical and experimental issues in contemporary research

/pdf/how-adult-second-language-learning-differs-from-child-first-3kuvcpyibq.pdf

How adult second language learning differs from child first language development

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