Neither an academic tome nor a prescriptive 'how to' guide, "The Theory and Practice of Online Learning" is an illuminating collection of essays by practitioners and scholars active in the complex field of distance education.Distance education has evolved significantly in its 150 years of existence. For most of this time, it was an individual pursuit defined by infrequent postal communication. But recently, three more developmental generations have emerged, supported by television and radio, teleconferencing, and computer conferencing. The early 21st century has produced a fifth generation, based on autonomous agents and intelligent, database-assisted learning, that has been referred to as Web 2.0.The second edition of "The Theory and Practice of Online Learning" features updates in each chapter, plus four new chapters on current distance education issues such as connectivism and social software innovations.

The Theory and Practice of Online Learning

This meta-analysis of the experimental literature of distance education (DE) compares different types of interaction treatments (ITs) with other DE instructional treatments. ITs are the instructional and/or media conditions designed into DE courses, which are intended to facilitate student–student (SS), student– teacher (ST), or student–content (SC) interactions. Seventy-four DE versus DE studies that contained at least one IT are included in the meta-analysis, which yield 74 achievement effects. The effect size valences are structured so that the IT or the stronger IT (i.e., in the case of two ITs) serve as the experimental condition and the other treatment, the control condition. Effects are categorized as SS, ST, or SC. After adjustment for methodological quality, the overall weighted average effect size for achievement is 0.38 and is heterogeneous. Overall, the results support the importance of the three types of ITs and strength of ITs is found to be associated with increasing achievement outcomes. A strong association is found between strength and achievement for asynchronous DE courses compared to courses containing mediated synchronous or face-to-face interaction. The results are interpreted in terms of increased cognitive engagement that is presumed to be promoted by strengthening ITs in DE courses.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40469094.pdf

A Meta-Analysis of Three Types of Interaction Treatments in Distance Education

Faculty satisfaction is considered an important factor of quality in online courses. A study was conducted to identify and confirm factors affecting the satisfaction of online faculty at a small research university, and to develop and validate an instrument that can be used to measure perceived faculty satisfaction in the context of the online learning environment. The online faculty satisfaction survey (OFSS) was developed and administered to all instructors who had taught an online course in fall 2007 or spring 2008 at a small research university in the USA. One hundred and two individuals completed the web‐based questionnaire. Results confirm that three factors affect satisfaction of faculty in the online environment: student‐related, instructor‐related, and institution‐related factors.

http://www.anitacrawley.net/Resources/Articles/Student%20Satisfaction.pdf

Factors influencing faculty satisfaction with online teaching and learning in higher education

Understanding what is lacking in the online teaching literature is critical to helping researchers and practitioners develop programs and support mechanisms for online teachers in higher education. This review formulates a critique of the standards- and competency-driven vision of online teaching from the perspective of transformative learning theory, in order to offer an alternative exploration of the professional development of online teachers as adult learners. The results indicate that while research about online teacher roles and competencies guides the development of teacher preparation and training programs, it lacks in terms of addressing the issues of empowerment of online teachers, promoting critical reflection, and integrating technology into pedagogical inquiry. An alternative perspective is suggested that considers teachers as adult learners who continuously transform their meaning of structures related to online teaching through a continuous process of critical reflection and action.

http://www.anitacrawley.net/Resources/Articles/Baran.pdf

Transforming online teaching practice: critical analysis of the literature on the roles and competencies of online teachers

The “Handbook for Distance Education” begins with a fourpage preface followed by an eleven page overview, both written by Dr. Michael Moore. The book is then divided into seven sections, each section containing several chapters (55 in total). Each chapter is written by a well known (previously published in The American Journal of Distance Education) author or collection of authors. The title of each section and the number of chapters found in each section is shown below:

Handbook of distance education

Recent issues in this journal and other prominent distance­learning journals have established the need for administrators to be informed and prepared with strategic plans equal to foreseeable challenges. This article provides decision makers with 32 trends that affect distance learning and thus enable them to plan accordingly. The trends are organized into categories as they pertain to students and enrollment, faculty members, academics, technology, the economy, and distance learning. All the trends were identified during an extensive review of current literature in the field Informed Planning Recent issues in this journal and other prominent distance­learning journals have established the need for administrators to be informed and prepared with strategic plans equal to foreseeable challenges. This article provides decision makers with 32 trends that affect distance learning and thus enable them to plan accordingly. The trends are organized into categories as they pertain to students and enrollment, faculty members, academics, technology, the economy, and distance learning. All the trends were identified during an extensive review of current literature in the field. In a recent issue of Distance Learning Administration, Beaudoin (2003) stressed the importance for institutional leaders “to be informed and enlightened enough to ask fundamental questions that could well influence their institution’s future viability” (p. 1). Example questions included “How many faculty will we be needed in ten years? Will the notion of classrooms survive? Is the present structure of the institution viable? Will teachers and students need to meet on campus anymore? [and] Can the

http://www.decadeconsulting.com/dc/documents/32trends.pdf

Thirty-two Trends Affecting Distance Education: An Informed Foundation for Strategic Planning

Many challenges associated with distance education and technology integration initiatives focus on faculty issues and concerns. This article analyzes these difficulties by identifying from the literature current trends affecting faculty, faculty motivators, and faculty challenges. Then, following this review and analysis, the article presents seven strategies for university administrators and faculty to consider as part of their own strategic plan to mitigate faculty concerns and ensure program success. The seven strategies discussed include the following: (1) enable colleges and departments to accept more responsibility for distance education activities; (2) provide faculty more information about distance education programs and activities; (3) encourage faculty to incorporate technology into their traditional classrooms; (4) provide strong incentives for faculty to participate in distance education; (5) improve training and instructional support for distance education faculty; (6) build a stronger distance education faculty community; and (7) encourage more distance education scholarship and research.

Seven Strategies for Enabling Faculty Success in Distance Education

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the percentage of all higher education institutions offering distance education courses increased from 33 percent to 44 percent from the fall of 1995 until the 1997-98 academic year (Lewis, Snow, Farris & Levin, 1999). New technologies are being utilized to deliver instruction and training to people who would not otherwise receive it. Many technology-related changes over the past few years have been dramatic and well documented, requiring little attention here. However, this ever-evolving landscape of distance education technology requires that the distance educator continually develop new skills. From an institutional perspective, as distance education programs are implemented, decisions must be made regarding hiring and training staff. What are the major roles that need to be covered? What skills are needed? What competencies are more important, technical, interpersonal, instructional or management? There is little research identifying the roles and competencies needed to implement distance education in the higher education environment. In response to this need, we convened an expert panel of distance educators via a computer-mediated Delphi technique in the fall of 1999 to identify and analyze the roles and competencies needed in higher education institutions to implement and manage distance education programs.

http://www.westga.edu/%7Edistance/ojdla/summer32/williams32.pdf

Making Informed Decisions about Staffing and Training: Roles and Competencies for Distance Education Programs in Higher Education

ON-DEMAND TUTORING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION: INTRINSICALLY-MOTIVATED, SCALABLE INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION TO IMPROVE ACHIEVEMENT, COMPLETION, AND SATISFACTION Peter B. Williams Department of Instructional Psychology and Technology Doctor of Philosophy The purpose of the study was to test an intrinsically-motivated interaction approach, designed to increase distance education support, for both content and motivation, in a cost-effective manner. The literature summarized shows that distance education students desire content and motivational support beyond course materials and are limited in their success without it. Further, while researchers explore increased interaction as a solution, professors usually do not have time for it and attempts to provide it are often restricted by institutions’ limited resources. Very little has been published on the effects of distance education tutors and the need for more research in this area has been noted, especially with regards to cost-effective, scalable service models. Even when attempts to increase interaction are successful, they are usually achieved by requiring participation in online discussion boards, making them mechanical and frustrating to students. The proposed solution is an on-demand tutoring service to increase (a) achievement, (b) completion, (c) satisfaction and (d) cost-effectiveness. Participants included Brigham Young University Independent Study students enrolled in a college algebra (MATH 110) course. A quasi-experimental research design, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), graphing techniques, correlation, and chi square analyses were used to determine the effects of the on-demand tutoring intervention. No statistically significant differences were apparent in the midterm scores, final exam scores, satisfaction ratings, or completion rates. However, despite unexpectedly low usage, the tutor appears to have been an adequate substitute for the professor in answering students’ questions, and the potential for providing cost-effective on-demand tutoring services seems attainable. A summary of the study’s strengths and weaknesses provides insights for improved practice and future research.

/pdf/on-demand-tutoring-in-distance-education-intrinsically-1ndvcag1ij.pdf

On-Demand Tutoring in Distance Education: Intrinsically-motivated, Scalable Interpersonal Interaction to Improve Achievement, Completion, and Satisfaction

Distance learning administrators are always looking for ways to balance increasing demands on instructor time, rising expectations from students and faculty for support services, mounting competition, and escalating costs with quality instruction and interaction. Increasingly, programs are responding to these competing interests by appending ancillary resources to course materials and textbooks and by using computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools, e.g., e-mail, online bulletin and discussion boards, blogs, interactive television, and computer conferencing. Yet there is inconclusive evidence that the CMC tools are successful in helping students better learn the course content (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2003). Additionally, although interaction may be increased when students are required to post on discussion boards, the quality of that interaction is often artificial, mechanical, and “noninteractive” rather than sincere and motivated (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2003; Stevens, 2003). One part of the solution to this larger problem, explored by one large distance education program, was the use of part-time tutors hired from the university's undergraduate student population, to offer additional content and motivational support to students enrolled in large enrolling courses.

/pdf/should-tutoring-services-be-added-to-our-high-enrolling-3ilxqopyet.pdf

Should Tutoring Services be Added to our High-Enrolling Distance Education Courses?

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