Ischemia-reperfusion injury is, at least in part, responsible for the morbidity associated with liver surgery under total vascular exclusion or after liver transplantation. The pathophysiology of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion includes a number of mechanisms that contribute to various degrees in the overall injury. Some of the topics discussed in this review include cellular mechanisms of injury, formation of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators, expression of adhesion molecules, and the role of oxidant stress during the inflammatory response. Furthermore, the roles of nitric oxide in preventing microcirculatory disturbances and as a substrate for peroxynitrite formation are reviewed. In addition, emerging mechanisms of protection by ischemic preconditioning are discussed. On the basis of current knowledge, preconditioning or pharmacological interventions that mimic these effects have the greatest potential to improve clinical outcome in liver surgery involving ischemic stress and reperfusion.

Molecular mechanisms of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury and preconditioning.

Ischemia followed by reperfusion of the rat hind limb resulted in local evidence of injury, as reflected in increased vascular permeability and hemorrhage in skeletal muscle as well as distant organ injury, as reflected by increased vascular permeability and hemorrhage in lung. These changes were proportional to the duration of reperfusion and were associated with neutrophil accumulation in tissue, as quantitated by myeloperoxidase (MPO) content. There was corresponding evidence of complement depletion and increases in plasma IL-1 and IL-6. On the basis of interventional approaches, limb and lung vascular injury was neutrophil and complement dependent and was attenuated by treatment with antioxidants. Products of L-arginine were involved in the development of vascular injury since antagonists of L-arginine were protective. Based on the use of blocking antibodies, the cytokines TNF alpha and IL-1 were also involved in the development of tissue injury. Finally, both LFA-1 (CD11a/CD18) and Mac-1 (CD11b/CD18) beta 2 integrins were required as well as the endothelial adhesion molecules E-selectin and ICAM-1. Protective interventions were more protective that both local and remote organ injury following ischemia-reperfusion is in lung than in skeletal muscle. There were, in general, parallel effects when tissue protection was related to reduction in MPO content. These data suggest dependent on toxic oxygen and L-arginine products of neutrophils, the accumulation of which can be linked to cytokines (TNF alpha, IL-1), beta 2 integrins and endothelial adhesion molecules.

Ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of alcohol- and obesity-induced fatty liver diseases.

https://aasldpubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/lt.20504

The contemporary role of antioxidant therapy in attenuating liver ischemia-reperfusion injury: a review.

This study reviews the current understanding of the mechanisms that mediate the complex processes involved in apoptosis secondary to ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) and is not intended as a complete literature review of apoptosis. Several biochemical reactions trigger a cascade of events, which activate caspases. These caspases exert their effect through downstream proteolysis until the final effector caspases mediate the nuclear features characteristic of apoptosis, DNA fragmentation and condensation. Within the context of ischemia, the hypoxic environment initiates the expression of several genes involved in inflammation, the immune response, and apoptosis. Many of these same genes are activated during reperfusion injury in response to radical oxygen species generation. It is plausible that inhibition of specific apoptotic pathways via inactivation or downregulation of those genes responsible for the initiation of inflammation, immune response, and apoptosis may provide promising molecular targets for ameliorating reperfusion injury in I/R-related processes. Such inhibitory mechanisms are discussed in this review. Important targets in I/R-related pathologies include the brain during stroke, the heart during myocardial infarction, and the organs during harvesting and/or storage for transplantation. In addition, we present data from our ongoing research of specific signal transduction-related elements and their role in ischemia/reperfusion injury. These data address the potential therapeutic application of anti-inflammatory and anti-ischemic compounds in the prevention of I/R damage.

Molecular biology of apoptosis in ischemia and reperfusion.

Reperfusion of an acutely ischemic tissue is recog-nized to elicit an intense inﬂammatory response thatcauses tissue injury The mechanisms of reperfusioninjury are multifactorial, including all the biochemicaland molecular events following ischemia While resto-ration of blood ﬂow is essential in ameliorating theprogression of cellular injury associated with de-creased oxygen and nutrient delivery, it is also followedby a series of complex reactions that paradoxicallyinjures tissue [1–3] Ischemic liver injury is a signiﬁ-cant problem in clinical medicine that can occur as aconsequence of circulatory shock or hepatic surgery(trauma, tumor resection, or liver transplantation) andmay lead to local and organ systemic dysfunction Thepurpose of this review is to analyze all importantchanges associated with the response of cell adhesionmolecules (CAMs) after hepatic ischemia/reperfusion(I/R) injury

RESEARCH REVIEW Adhesion Molecules in Liver Ischemia and Reperfusion

The role of nitric oxide (NO) in liver ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury remains controversial and few works have shed more information regarding the effect of exogenous (EX) and/or endogenous NO (EN) under conditions of I/R of the liver. We investigated the role of exogenous and endogenous NO and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibition in liver function, neutrophil infiltration, and animal survival after liver I/R. Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to total hepatic ischemia for 90 min using an extracorporeal porto-systemic shunt. The animals were divided into five groups, including the sham porto-systemic shunt with no ischemia, the control ischemic group, the L-arginine-treated group, the sodium nitroprusside (SNP or NaNP)-treated group, and the L-N6-(1-iminoethyl) lysine hydrochloride (L-NIL) (selective iNOS inhibitor)-treated group. The animal survival was followed for 7 days. Liver injury tests, tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO), and histology were analyzed at 6 h postreperfusion. L-Arginine- and sodium nitroprusside-treated groups demonstrated significant improvement in 7 days survival in comparison to the control (20%) (p .05). Liver injury tests and histology scores in the SNP- and L-arginine-treated groups showed significant improvement when compared to the control group (p .5). We conclude that NO exogenous donors and substrates for the endogenous pathway are beneficial for the liver after severe I/R and could be important therapeutic targets to prevent damage following this phenomenon.

Exogenous and Endogenous Nitric Oxide but Not iNOS Inhibition Improves Function and Survival of Ischemically Injured Livers

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RESEARCH REVIEW Adhesion Molecules in Liver Ischemia and Reperfusion

Exogenous and Endogenous Nitric Oxide but Not iNOS Inhibition Improves Function and Survival of Ischemically Injured Livers