Photocatalytic technology with sunlight as driving force can convert solar energy into other energy sources for storage and further use. Cadmium sulfide (CdS), as a typical reducing semiconductor of metal sulfides, represents an interesting research hotspot in photocatalysis due to its suitable bandgap (2.4 eV) for utilizing visible light and strong reducing ability for inducing surface catalytic reactions. Unfortunately, the photocatalytic performance of CdS is still limited by its fast carrier recombination and serious photocorrosion. So far, CdS semiconductor has been widely developed as a typical reducing photocatalyst in constructing novel S-scheme heterojunction to overcome the above drawbacks. In this review, the design concepts, basic principles, and charge transfer characteristics of CdS-based S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts have been comprehensively introduced. Several advanced and effective characterization methods for studying the mechanism of CdS-based S-scheme heterojunction are analyzed in detail. Furthermore, we also summarize the typical applications of CdS-based S-scheme heterojunctions for water splitting, CO2 reduction, pollutant degradation, etc. Eventually, according to the current investigation status, some drawbacks in the current synthetic strategy, mechanism exploration, and application prospect of CdS-based S-scheme heterojunction are proposed, which need to be addressed by further expansion and innovative research. 

Recent Progress in CdS-based S-scheme Photocatalysts

Constructing dual S-scheme heterojunction, as one kind of new strategy for the reinforcement of photocatalytic property, shows significant advantages in facilitating the migration of photoinduced charges and achieving high redox potentials. Herein, a novel double S-scheme heterojunction CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4 was designed and synthesized successfully. The photodegradation of tetracycline (TC) over CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4 was carried out under the irradiation of visible light. The double S-scheme interfacial charge transmission mode of CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4 was investigated according to Fermi level, band structure, and the in-depth analysis of in situ irradiated X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (ISI-XPS) and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra. The CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4 exhibits excellent catalytic activity with a high TC removal efficiency of 94 % and a remarkable mineralization efficiency of 51 %. The rate constant (0.05811 min−1) of TC degradation for CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4 is 12.9, 7.8, 4.3, 2.2, and 3.1 times those for g-C3N4, CeO2, Bi2O4, g-C3N4/Bi2O4 and CeO2/g-C3N4, separately. The prominently boosted activity may be due to two factors. Firstly, the successful creation of the double S-scheme electron migration channel greatly boosts the transmission of photogenerated carriers, represses the recombination of electrons with holes, and ensures the strongest redox potential of CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4. Secondly, the introduction of Bi2O4 with excellent visible-light absorption broadens the optical absorption region of CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4. Additionally, the influence of the typical environmental factors (pH, inorganic anions, cations, and natural humus) on the photodegradation of TC was explored. The three probable pathways for TC degradation were inferred via analyzing intermediates. The current work offers a novel outlook for enhancing the activity of ternary heterojunction photocatalysts applied in environmental restoration. 

Construction of a novel double S-scheme heterojunction CeO2/g-C3N4/Bi2O4 for significantly boosted degradation of tetracycline: Insight into the dual charge transfer mode

Novel S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts of bismuth molybdate/hollow tube graphite carbon nitride (Bi2MoO6 SOVs/g-C3N4) containing surface defects (SOVs) were prepared by calcination and hydrothermal methods. The hollow tubular structure of g-C3N4 facilitates the enhancement of multiple reflection and scattering of light, and also have a larger range of specific surface areas and more reactive sites, which promotes carrier separation and thus improves photocatalytic performance. The introduction of SOVs to bismuth molybdate not only reduces the band gap of bismuth molybdate, but also promotes the separation of charges. The optimized Bi2MoO6 SOVs/TCN photocatalyst has a hydrogen production efficiency of 2.29 mmol h-1 g-1. It also shows high photocatalytic degradation property of tetracycline and bisphenol A in water, up to 97.3 % and 98.9 %, respectively. Meanwhile, the transfer mechanism of photogenerated charges in S-scheme heterojunctions can be verified by electron paramagnetic resonance and in situ irradiated x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy electron paramagnetic resonance, which accelerated the separation and transfer of photogenerated charge by energy band bending at the interface and internal electric field. This rational structural design strategy provides a new development idea for building high-performance S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts. 

Oxygen-Defective Bi2MoO6/g-C3N4 hollow tubulars S-scheme heterojunctions toward optimized photocatalytic performance.

A generalizable strategy toward highly tough and heat-resistant stereocomplex-type polylactide/elastomer blends with substantially enhanced melt processability

Although they are emerging technologies for achieving high-efficiency and green and eco-friendly energy conversion, ceramic electrochemical cells (CECs), i.e. solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) and fuel cells (SOFCs), are still fundamentally limited by their inferior catalytic activities at low temperature, poor thermo-mechanical stability, high material cost, etc. The materials used in electrolytes and electrodes, which are the most important components in CECs, are highly associated with the cell performances. Therefore, rational design of electrolytes and electrodes with excellent catalytic activities and high stabilities at relatively low cost is a meaningful and valuable approach for the development of CECs. Nanotechnology is a powerful tool for improving the material performances in CECs owing to the favourable effects induced by the nanocrystallization of electrolytes and electrodes. Herein, a relatively comprehensive review on the nanotechnologies implemented in CECs is conducted. The working principles of CECs and the corresponding challenges were first presented, followed by the comprehensive insights into the working mechanisms of nanocrystalline materials in CECs. Then, systematic summarization and analyses of the commonly used nano-engineering strategies in the fabrication of CEC materials, including physical and chemical methods, were provided. In addition, the frontiers in the research of advanced electrolyte and electrode materials were discussed with a special emphasis on the modified electrochemical properties derived from nanotechnologies. Finally, the bottlenecks and the promising breakthroughs in nanotechnologies were highlighted in the direction of providing useful references for rational design of nanomaterials for CECs.

Nanotechnologies in ceramic electrochemical cells.

A novel aryl hydrazide nucleator to effectively promote stereocomplex crystallization in high-molecular-weight poly(L-lactide)/poly(D-lactide) blends

High-temperature water oxidation activity of a perovskite-based nanocomposite towards application as air electrode in reversible protonic ceramic cells

Despite the low activation energy for proton diffusion under protonic ceramic fuel cell (PCFC) operation, the high-performance PCFC is still limited by the low proton conductivity of most cathode materials. A decrease in cathode acidity can enhance proton affinity; however, the severe CO2-tolerance associated with the doping of alkaline earth metals in perovskite oxides is also a challenge. Herein, a proton conducting oxide La5.5W0.45Mo0.4Nb0.15O11.25-δ (LWMN), which possesses excellent chemical stability under a CO2-containing atmosphere, is composited with Sr2Sc0.1Nb0.1Co1.5Fe0.3O6-δ (SSNCF) as the PCFC cathode. A 3 wt% alkali earth ion-free oxide LWMN composite in the cathode material can strengthen proton diffusion while weakening CO2 adsorption. Thus, in wet air containing CO2, the symmetrical cell based on the 3 wt% LWMN-SSNCF achieved a linear degradation rate of ASRs of 1.33 × 10−3 Ω cm2 min−1 for the first 3 h, which was lower than the 2.15 × 10−3 Ω cm2 min−1 achieved by the symmetrical cell based on the single-phase SSNCF cathode. Furthermore, the PCFC based on the composite cathode shows an improved performance of 1.114 W cm−2 at 650 °C due to its superior proton conduction. This strategy endowed the cathode with superior proton diffusion as well as low CO2 adsorption. 

Enhanced proton conductivity and CO2-tolerance of intermediate-temperature protonic ceramic fuel cell with lanthanum tungstate-based composite cathode

Hollow cubic CdS@CoS/WS2 dual S-scheme heterojunction superstructures with a full spectral response showing good photothermal–photocatalytic properties are fabricated using a simple sulfidation and hydrothermal method.

Hollow cubic CdS@CoS/WS2 dual S-scheme heterojunction superstructure toward optimized photothermal–photocatalytic performance

High-performance UV light detector using layered perovskites and textured silicon heterojunction

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