One shortcoming of metals and alloys used to fabricate various components of orthopaedic systems, such as the femoral stem of a total hip joint replacement and the tibial plate of a total knee joint replacement, is well-recognized. This is that the material modulus of elasticity (E′) is substantially larger than that of the contiguous cancellous bone, a consequence of which is stress shielding which, in turn, has been postulated to be implicated in a cascade of events that culminates in the principal life-limiting phenomenon of these systems, namely, aseptic loosening. Thus, over the years, a host of research programs have focused on the synthesis of metallic biomaterials whose E′ can be tailored to match that of cancellous bone. The present work is a review of the extant large volume of literature on these materials, which are called open-cell porous metals/alloys (or, sometimes, metal foams or cellular materials). As such, its range is wide, covering myriad aspects such as production methods, characterization studies, in vitro evaluations, and in vivo performance. The review also includes discussion of seven areas for future research, such as parametric studies of the influence of an assortment of process variables (such as the space holder material and the laser power in the space holder method and the laser-engineered net-shaping process, respectively) on various properties (notably, permeability, fatigue strength, and corrosion resistance) of a given porous metal/alloy, innovative methods of determining fatigue strength, and modeling of corrosion behavior.

Properties of open-cell porous metals and alloys for orthopaedic applications.

Book reviewSurface self-diffusion of metals: By G. Neumann and G. M. Neumann, Vol. 1 of Diffusion Monograph Series, F. H. Wöhlbier (ed.), published by Diffusion Information Centre, Bay Village, Ohio, 1972; 129 pp., 35 figs.

Powder injection molding can be used to fabricate bi-material components that provide unique functionality such as a combination of toughness and wear resistance. Successful processing of these components requires minimization of internal stresses during sintering. In this article, the stresses generated during co-sintering of concentric rings are analyzed, compared to the materials’ strengths, and correlated with defects. The results provide guidelines for determining the compatibility of various materials and the effect of component geometry.

Design Guidelines for Processing Bi-Material Components via Powder-Injection Molding

A mathematical link is created between green body mass homogeneity and sintered component dimensional scatter. In the light of the model, data from die pressed and injection moulded powders are analysed for green mass variations and sintered size variations. The model provides guidelines for assessing research needs for process control, green body inspection and computer simulation with respect to dimensional tolerance goals.

/pdf/green-body-homogeneity-effects-on-sintered-tolerances-393uyhwvad.pdf

Green body homogeneity effects on sintered tolerances

A defect-free, two-material component can be obtained via co-sintering by suitably altering the powder characteristics or compositions, as demonstrated in Part I. In this paper, a model to ascertain the suitability of material systems to be co-sintered without defects such as delamination or interface pores is presented. The model is based on the management of the stress induced due to the difference in shrinkage and an analysis of the in situ strength of the weaker material during sintering. Tool steel in combination with stainless steel admixed with boron and Fe-2Ni admixed with boron are two systems used to validate the model. The predictions of the model are in good agreement with the observations.

Defect-free sintering of two material powder injection molded components. Part II: Model

A compact gains strength in sintering through low-temperature interparticle bonding, followed by further strength contributions from high-temperature densification. On the other hand, thermal softening substantially reduces a compact's strength at high temperatures. Therefore, the in situ strength during sintering is determined by the competition among interparticle neck growth, densification, and thermal softening. Distortion in sintering occurs when the compact is weak. Most strength models for sintered materials are semi-empirical relations based on the sintered fractional density. These models do not include microstructure or sintering cycle parameters; thus, they do not provide guidelines for thermal cycle design to improve compact dimensional control. A strength evolution model is derived which combines sintering theories and microstructure parameters, including interparticle neck size, solid volume fraction, and particle coordination number. The model predicts sintered strength and when combined with thermal softening gives a good prediction of in situ strength. The validity of the model is verified by comparison to experimental data for sintered and in situ strength of bronze and steel powders.

Densification and strength evolution in solid-state sintering Part II Strength model

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Densification and strength evolution in solid-state sintering Part II Strength model