Only relatively recently the significance of inducing not only systemic immunity but also significant local immunity at susceptible mucosal surfaces has become appreciated. A new field of mucosal immunity has been established as information accumulates on mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) and on its role in both local and systemic immune responses. This review describes the formulation of vaccines to be delivered to one of MALT components, i.e. the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT), which bears some similarities with the Peyer's patches of the intestine. The association of antigens with adjuvants and particulate carriers such as microparticles, nanoparticles and liposomes is emphasised.

Nasal Delivery of Vaccines

The ability of Vibrio cholerae to persist in bodies of water will continue to confound our ability to eradicate cholera through improvements to infrastructure, and thus cholera vaccines are needed. We aim for an inexpensive vaccine that can provide long-lasting protection from all epidemic cholera infections, currently caused by O1 or O139 serogroups. Recent insights into correlates of protection, epidemiology and pathogenesis may help us design improved vaccines. This notwithstanding, we have come to appreciate that even marginally protective vaccines, such as oral whole-cell killed vaccines, if widely distributed, can provide significant protection, owing to herd immunity. Further efforts are still required to provide more effective protection of young children.

/pdf/vibrio-cholerae-lessons-for-mucosal-vaccine-design-3fszch45su.pdf

Vibrio cholerae: lessons for mucosal vaccine design

Influence of phospholipid composition on antibody responses to liposome encapsulated protein and peptide antigens

Vaccination is one of the most effective approaches in the prevention and control of disease worldwide. Oral vaccination could have wide applications if effective protection cannot be achieved through traditional (eg, parenteral) routes of vaccination. However, oral administration is hampered by the difficulties in transferring vaccines in vivo. This has led to the development of materials such as carriers with potential adjuvant effects. Considering the requirements for selecting adjuvants for oral vaccines as well as the advantages of nanoparticle/microparticle materials as immune effectors and antigen conveyors, synthetic materials could improve the efficiency of oral vaccination. In this review, nanoparticles and microparticles with adjuvant characteristics are described with regard to their potential importance for oral immunization, and some promising and successful modification strategies are summarized.

/pdf/properties-and-applications-of-nanoparticle-microparticle-4pbukuigdv.pdf

Properties and applications of nanoparticle/microparticle conveyors with adjuvant characteristics suitable for oral vaccination.

Heterosubtypic immunity to influenza mediated by liposome adjuvanted H5N1 recombinant protein vaccines.

Liposomes were prepared from bovine brain sphingomyelin and cholesterol. They were reinforced by incorporation of osmium tetroxide to prevent their immediate degradation inside the host. Combined Vibrio cholerae antigens (lipopolysaccharide, crude cell·bound hemagglutinin and procholeragenoid) were orally administered to experimental rats either as free or IIposome·associated. A total of 70 experimental rats was utilized in experiments comparing the immune responses of rats to liposome·associated vaccine, free vaccine, liposomes, or placebo, and to vaccines where the lipid or antigen levels were reduced. Immediately after feeding with sodium bicarbonate to lower the gastric acidity, they were fed either cholera vaccines or placebo. Results from serum ELISA revealed that the liposomes localized the immune response to the intestinal mucosa. They displayed an adjuvant property in term~ of evoking a higher immune response to V. cholerae antigens, as measured by the appearance of specific antibody·producing cells in the intestinal mucosa, than when the antigens were fed alone. The adjuvanticity was found to be lipid dose dependent. Liposomes prepared with high lipid content enhanced immuno· genicity of the admixture antigens to a greater degree.

Immunogenicity of liposome-associated oral cholera vaccine prepared from combined Vibrio cholerae antigens.

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Immunogenicity of liposome-associated oral cholera vaccine prepared from combined Vibrio cholerae antigens.