Both sex pheromones and male lures appear to play an important role in the mating systems of many species of economically important tephritid species. Typically, stationary males emit pheromone attractive to searching females, and recent evidence indicates that naturally occurring male lures may function as precursors in pheromone synthesis. Here, we review (i) the basic biology of sex pheromones and the importance of naturally occurring male lures as pheromone components or precursors and (ii) the use of sex pheromones and male lures as trap baits, primarily in fruit fly detection programs, for the major genera of Anastrepha, Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus, Rhagoletis, and Toxotrypana. Relatively few studies have examined the effectiveness of pheromone-based trapping, and most of these have involved only three species, the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), the Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew), and the Caribbean fruit fly, A. suspensa (Loew). In general, the results have been inconsistent, with traps baited with live males or male pheromone extracts or components attracting more females than blanks or food-baited traps in some studies but not in others. This inconsistency, along with the chemical complexity of pheromones and the multimodal nature of sexual communication (where olfaction is but one of several sensory channels used in male signaling and courtship), has limited research on the development of pheromone baits. Male lures, on the other hand, have proven incredibly useful and consistently effective trap baits. The major male lures – methyl eugenol, cue-lure/raspberry ketone, and trimedlure – are discussed as are possible replacements/modifications, such as fluorinated analogues of methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone formate, zingerone, ceralure, and enriched ginger root oil. In addition, we discuss various factors influencing the efficacy of male lures, including fly age, prior lure ingestion, selection for non-responsiveness, interspecific differences in responsiveness, and the use of liquid versus solid dispensers.

https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9789401791922-c2.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1489583-p176778010

Pheromones, Male Lures, and Trapping of Tephritid Fruit Flies

The use of semiochemicals, both sex pheromones and food attractants, in monitoring the olive fly, Bactrocera oleae, has become well established in most olive-growing countries of the Mediterranean basin. There is an ever-increasing degree of sophistication that is being introduced in the way trap catch data are collected and interpreted, making for a substantially more rational use of conventional insecticides. The introduction of semiochemical-based products as control methods in IPM packages for B.oleae has been very successfully accomplished on a pilot scale in a number of olive growing countries. These pilot scale trials are now being extended into area-wide programmes in Spain, Italy and Greece and will, in due course, be extended to the whole of the Mediterranean basin.

http://phero.net/iobc/samos/bulletin/jones.pdf

Alternative methods for controlling the olive fly, Bactrocera oleae, involving semiochemicals.

The Dipteran family Tephritidae (true fruit flies) comprises more than 5000 species classified in 500 genera distributed worldwide. Tephritidae include devastating agricultural pests and highly invasive species whose spread is currently facilitated by globalization, international trade and human mobility. The ability to identify and exploit a wide range of host plants for oviposition, as well as effective and diversified reproductive strategies, are among the key features supporting tephritid biological success. Intraspecific communication involves the exchange of a complex set of sensory cues that are species- and sex-specific. Chemical signals, which are standing out in tephritid communication, comprise long-distance pheromones emitted by one or both sexes, cuticular hydrocarbons with limited volatility deposited on the surrounding substrate or on the insect body regulating medium- to short-distance communication, and host-marking compounds deposited on the fruit after oviposition. In this review, the current knowledge on tephritid chemical communication was analysed with a special emphasis on fruit fly pest species belonging to the Anastrepha, Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Rhagoletis and Zeugodacus genera. The multidisciplinary approaches adopted for characterising tephritid semiochemicals, and the real-world applications and challenges for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and biological control strategies are critically discussed. Future perspectives for targeted research on fruit fly chemical communication are highlighted.

Tephritid Fruit Fly Semiochemicals: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives.

The last chapter discussed the use of semiochemical-based traps for population control through mass trapping. This theme will now be continued but ‘lure and kill’ techniques differ in one respect: the insect, once attracted by the semiochemical lure, is not ‘entrapped’ at the source of the attractant by adhesive, water or any other physical device. Instead, the insect is subjected to a killing or sterilizing agent, which effectively eliminates it from the population. This technique has been variously descried as ‘lure and kill’, ‘attracticide’ or ‘attraction-annihilation’ (Lanier, 1990), though the latter concept would also include mass trapping as described in Chapter 10.

Lure and kill

Dacus oleae (Gmelin) is a major pest of the olive tree Olea europea causing early fruit drop, ‘sting’ damage to table olives and substantial decreases in the quantity and quality of oil. This review describes the control strategies being developed and in current use—biological, trapping methods, sterile insect release, chemical insecticides, growth regulators and integrated control. Present problems and the implications of the controlling regimes on the disturbance of the agroecosystem are presented. Emphasis is given to newer methods which should be characterized by their specificity and effectivity.

Control of Dacus oleae, a major pest of olives.

A major component of the sex pheromone of Dacus oleae (Gmel.) has recently been identified as a spiroacetal. The use of this compound as a lure for use in the development of a monitoring trap for that species is described. Polyethylene vials gave a slower release rate of the spiroacetal than rubber septa or microfibres, but even in polyethylene vials a loading in excess of 10 mg was required (optimum 20 to 25 mg) to obtain catches in delta traps which were comparable with those in unbaited vertical yellow sticky traps. In studies in an olive grove near Granada, Spain, a 25-mg spiroacetal lure used with a vertical yellow trap gave catches of males of D. oleae which were four times as great as those in delta traps with the same lure or in unbaited yellow traps. The height of the trap had no apparent effect on catch. Previously recorded components of the sex pheromone did not prove to be effective when combined with the spiroacetal. Combined monitoring of Prays oleae (Bern.) and D. oleae, using their respective pheromones in the same trap, appears to be feasible with delta traps.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0007485300013833

Development of a monitoring trap for the olive fly, Dacus oleae (Gmelin) (Diptera: Tephritidae), using a component of its sex pheromone as lure

MONTIEL, A.; RAMOS, P.; JONES, O. T ; LISK, P. E. y BAKER, R., 1982: Interferencias en el apareamiento de la mosca del olivo (Dacus oleae Gmel.) con el principal componente de su feromona sexual. Bol. Serv. Plagas, 8: 193-200. The major component of the sex pheromone of Dacus oleae was formulated in plastic sachets which provided a more or less constant release rate over 30 days under Laboratory conditions. Using one or two sachets per olive tree, mating disruption was achieved in both 1981 and 1982 in one hectare sites in Granada and Jaen (Spain). This was assayed by depression of captures in pheromone-baited traps in the treated pit. During 1982, measurements of fruit infestation in treated and control sites was also made which provided further evidence that mating disruption was achieved. Although there were high significant differences in trap catches in treated and untreated plots, signigicant differences in infestation levels have not yet been established conclusively in D. oleae.

Interferencias en el apareamiento de la mosca del olivo (Dacus oleae Gmel.) con el principal componente de su feromona sexual

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Development of a monitoring trap for the olive fly, Dacus oleae (Gmelin) (Diptera: Tephritidae), using a component of its sex pheromone as lure

Interferencias en el apareamiento de la mosca del olivo (Dacus oleae Gmel.) con el principal componente de su feromona sexual