Epidemiological evidence and laboratory studies indicate that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV 1) is rarely, if ever, transmitted in saliva or urine. In that both specimens are easy to collect, each may be a useful alternative to serum specimens for anti-HIV screening. A rapid, simple, and robust IgG-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (GACELISA) suitable for the detection of anti-HIV 1 and 2 in saliva and urine was developed. Following optimisation of the assay, 177 salivary and 568 urine specimens collected from individuals of known serostatus were investigated. The assay was 100% sensitive on 50 salivary (median OD/CO = 8.9) and 126 urinary (median OD/CO = 8.6) specimens collected from anti-HIV-positive patients. The specificity was 100% on 127 salivary specimens (median OD/CO = 0.37) and 422 urinary specimens (median OD/CO = 0.39) collected from anti-HIV-negative individuals. These findings demonstrate that GACELISA HIV 1 + 2 tests on saliva or on urine are an accurate alternative to a conventional anti-HIV test of blood. This assay is satisfactory for surveillance purposes and, with appropriate precautions, could be used clinically.

Novel assay for the detection of immunoglobulin G antihuman immunodeficiency virus in untreated saliva and urine.

Simple and Reliable Salivary Tests for HIV and Hepatitis A and B Virus Diagnosis and Surveillance

In 2002-2005, a cross-sectional study to assess the potential for HIV transmission was carried out among 557 female and male-to-female transgender commercial sex workers (CSW) in three cities in the Netherlands. Female CSW (F-CSW), drug-using female CSW (DU), and trans- gender sex workers were recruited in street-based and establishment-based sites. An anonymous questionnaire was administrated by interviewers and a saliva sample was col- lected for HIV antibody testing. The overall HIV prevalence was 5.7% (31/547; 10 samples were excluded because of ''intermediate'' test results). HIV was more prevalent among transgender (18.8%, 13/69) and DU (13.6%, 12/88) sex workers than among F-CSW (1.5%, 6/390). Of the HIV pos- itive CSW, 74% were unaware of their infection. Consistent condom use with clients was 81%. Regular condom failure with clients was reported by 39%. In multivariate analyses, transgender sex workers (OR = 22.9), drug-using CSW who ever injected drugs (OR = 31.1), African (OR = 19.0), and South European ethnicity (OR = 7.2) were independently associated with HIV. Condom failure (PRR = 2.0), anal sex (PRR = 2.1), and drug use (PRR = 3.8) were associated with inconsistent condom use with clients. There is a po- tential risk for further spread of HIV, through clients and (private) partners of sex workers, to the general population. Targeted health promotion activities are indicated for trans- gender sex workers and drug-using female CSW; active HIV testing must be continued.

HIV and Sexual Risk Behavior among Commercial Sex Workers in the Netherlands

In 2002–2005, a cross-sectional study to assess the potential forHIV transmissionwas carried out among557 female and male-to-female transgender commercial sex workers (CSW) in three cities in the Netherlands. Female CSW (F-CSW), drug-using female CSW (DU), and transgender sex workers were recruited in street-based and establishment-based sites. An anonymous questionnaire was administrated by interviewers and a saliva sample was collected for HIV antibody testing. The overall HIV prevalence was 5.7% (31/547; 10 samples were excluded because of ‘‘intermediate’’ test results). HIVwasmore prevalent among transgender (18.8%, 13/69) and DU (13.6%, 12/88) sex workers than among F-CSW (1.5%, 6/390). Of the HIV positive CSW, 74% were unaware of their infection. Consistent condom use with clients was 81%. Regular condom failure with clients was reported by 39%. In multivariate analyses, transgender sexworkers (OR = 22.9), drug-usingCSWwho ever injected drugs (OR = 31.1), African (OR = 19.0), and South European ethnicity (OR = 7.2) were independently associated with HIV. Condom failure (PRR = 2.0), anal sex (PRR = 2.1), and drug use (PRR = 3.8) were associated with inconsistent condom use with clients. There is a potential risk for further spread of HIV, through clients and (private) partners of sex workers, to the general population. Targeted health promotion activities are indicated for transgender sex workers and drug-using female CSW; active HIV testing must be continued.

/pdf/hiv-and-sexual-risk-behaviour-among-commercial-sex-workers-o5wu6y5tks.pdf

HIV AND SExUAL RISk bEHAVIOUR AmONG COmmERCIAL SEx wORkERS IN THE NETHERLANDS

Biomarkers are defined as indicators of biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacological responses to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers have been widely used for early detection, prediction of response after treatment, and for monitoring the progression of diseases. Antibodies represent promising tools for recognition of biomarkers, and are widely deployed as analytical tools in clinical settings. For immunodiagnostics, antibodies are now exploited as binders for antigens of interest across a range of platforms. More recently, the discovery of antibody surface display and combinatorial chemistry techniques has allowed the exploration of new binders from a range of animals, for instance variable domains of new antigen receptors (VNAR) from shark and variable heavy chain domains (VHH) or nanobodies from camelids. These single domain antibodies (sdAbs) have some advantages over conventional murine immunoglobulin owing to the lack of a light chain, making them the smallest natural biomarker binders thus far identified. In this review, we will discuss several biomarkers used as a means to validate diseases progress. The potential functionality of modern singe domain antigen binders derived from phylogenetically early animals as new biomarker detectors for current diagnostic and research platforms development will be described.

https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/7/4/52/pdf/1

Single Domain Antibodies as New Biomarker Detectors

This investigation, done at the Institut Pasteur de Cote d'Ivoire ‘blind’ of the previous serological findings, suggests that gacelisa , a commercial immunoglobulin G capture enzyme immunoassay for anti-human immunodeficiency virus antibody, can be successfully applied to unprocessed saliva and urine specimens. Its accuracy may be as high as that of conventional enzyme assays on serum tested under similar conditions. However, the role of gacpat , a similar assay, as a cheap alternative screening test for urine remains in doubt unless its non-specificity can be controlled.

Salivary and urinary diagnosis of human immunodeficiency viruses 1 and 2 infection in Côte d'Ivoire, using two assays.

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Salivary and urinary diagnosis of human immunodeficiency viruses 1 and 2 infection in Côte d'Ivoire, using two assays.