Activation of urethral or genital afferents of the pudendal nerve can elicit or inhibit micturition, and low frequency stimulation of the compound pudendal nerve (PN) is known to produce a continence response The present study demonstrates that PN stimulation also can elicit a micturition-like response and that the response to PN stimulation is dependent on stimulation frequency We measured the changes in bladder pressure and external urethral sphincter (EUS) electroneurogram (ENG) evoked by PN stimulation before and up to 16 h after spinal cord transection (SCT) in cats anaesthetized with α-chloralose Low frequency (10 Hz) stimulation elicited a continence-like response, including inhibition of the bladder and activation of the EUS, but mid-frequency (33 Hz) stimulation produced a micturition-like response, including excitation of the bladder without activation of the EUS The dependence of the response on stimulus frequency was linked to interpulse interval as the same number of pulses at 10, 33 and 100 Hz produced different responses Stimulation of the PN at 33 Hz produced bladder contractions before and 8 h after SCT provided the bladder contained a minimum volume of fluid Only mid-range frequency stimulation with sufficient stimulus train duration produced a reduction in EUS ENG activity before and after SCT In addition to a continence-like response, PN stimulation can also elicit a micturition-like response, and this response is dependent on stimulation frequency, stimulus train duration, and bladder volume The ability to control the two principal functions of the bladder by pudendal nerve stimulation is an exciting prospect for neurorehabilitation

https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1113/jphysiol.2006.111815

Frequency‐dependent selection of reflexes by pudendal afferents in the cat

Electrical and chemical stimulations of the pontine micturition center.

1. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is intimately associated with central sympathetic and somatic control of the lower urinary tract. The sympathetic and somatic innervation of the lower urinary tract is conveyed through efferent axons of the hypogastric and pudendal nerves, respectively. 2. The present study examined the effects of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenylisopropylamine (DOI), a 5-HT2 receptor subtype-selective agonist, on evoked potentials recorded from the central ends of the hypogastric and pudendal nerves in response to electrical stimulation of afferent fibres in the pelvic and pudendal nerves, respectively. Various spinalization paradigms were employed to localize the site of action. All cats were pretreated with xylamidine (1 mg kg-1), a peripherally-restricted 5-HT2 receptor antagonist. 3. In acute spinal cats, DOI (0.01-3 mg kg-1, i.v.) reliably produced dose-dependent increases in the pudendal nerve reflex (to 228 +/- 31% of control). These increases were reversed by the 5-HT2 receptor-selective antagonist, LY53857 (0.3-3 mg kg-1, i.v.). On the other hand, in spinally-intact cats, DOI produced no significant changes in the pudendal reflex. However, within minutes of spinalization of DOI-pretreated cats, a marked increase (to 221 +/- 16% of control) in the pudendal reflex was observed which could be reversed by LY53857. No significant effects were observed on hypogastric reflexes in either acute spinal or spinally-intact cats following DOI administration. No effects were seen in either spinally-intact or acute spinal animals when LY53857 was administered as the initial drug. 4. These results indicate that activation of spinal 5-HT2 receptors facilitates pudendal reflexes. In spinally-intact cats, it is hypothesized that DOI activates supraspinal pathways that mediate inhibition of the pudendal reflexes and counteracts the facilitatory effects of spinal 5-HT2 receptor activation.

Spinal 5-HT2 receptor-mediated facilitation of pudendal nerve reflexes in the anaesthetized cat

Normally, during bladder filling (continence) and expulsion (micturition) there is a reciprocity between the pattern of activity in the urinary bladder sacral parasympathetic efferents and the somatic motoneurones innervating the striated external urethral sphincter muscle. The co-ordination of this pattern of reciprocal activity appears to be determined by excitatory and inhibitory actions of a variety of segmental afferents and descending systems with sacral spinal actions. These actions may in part be mediated through lower lumbar and sacral excitatory and inhibitory spinal interneurones. Over the past 30 years, both neuroanatomical and electrophysiological approaches have been used to reveal an ever-increasing richness in the neuronal network in the lower spinal cord related to the bladder and striated external urethral sphincter muscle. The purpose of this review is to present an overview of the identified excitatory and inhibitory spinal interneurones hypothesized to be involved in the central networks controlling the sacral bladder parasympathetic preganglionic neurones and striated urethral sphincter motoneurones during continence and micturition.

https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0057b.x

Sacral spinal interneurones and the control of urinary bladder and urethral striated sphincter muscle function.

The pudendo-pudendal reflex (bulbocavernosus reflex) was studied in male and female rats. Electrical stimulation of pudendal nerve afferents induced reflex volleys in ipsi- and contralateral pudendal nerves. The early components of the reflex were unaffected by acute spinal transection. The reflex was shown to be polysynaptic and bilaterally organized. No qualitative differences were noted between males and females, but a significantly longer central delay was observed in female rats, compared to males.

The pudendo-pudendal reflex in male and female rats.

Nine cats were spinalized at the thoraco-lumbar junction (T12-L7) and the subsequent behaviour of the bladder and urethral striated sphincter was observed during periods of up to 27 days after spinalization by means of bladder manometry and of urethral electromyography. On the day following operation, the urethral sphincter responds to stimulation of its intact motor nerve, the pudic nerve by reflex (R) and direct (M) responses analogous to those of the intact animal anaesthetized with chloralose. The ratio R/M lies between 1 and 0.6 in the chronic spinal cat whereas it is generally less than 0.5 in the intact chloralose-anaesthetized cat. The tonic activity of the sphincter is weak or not present. The continence, however, is well maintained. The bladder activity appears only 4 to 8 days after spinalization. The bladder can thus void urine during brief contractions. These micturitions are always incomplete.

Behaviour of the urethral striated sphincter and of the bladder in the chronic spinal cat. Implications at the Central Nervous System Level.

Apple is widely cultivated in temperate regions. The beneficial properties of apple for preventing several illnesses are widely known. Nevertheless, qualitative variables such as sweetness or sourness may influence consumer satisfaction; they are critical factors for fruit consumption and essential in plant breeding. In the present work, 155 apple accessions were assessed during five consecutive years (2014–2018). Four individual sugars and seven organic acids were analysed by HPLC. A mixed-effects model was fitted with accessions and the years’ climatic features as independent variables. A cluster analysis was applied on the mixed-effects model coefficients. Four groups were considered as optimum. Genetics seemed to have the strongest effect and showed clear differences between accession groups, while climate effects were strong only for certain compounds and had a more horizontal behaviour equally affecting the different accession groups. In fact, non-Spanish cultivars tended to concentrate, while autochthone accessions had a much wider spread. Individual sugars and acids concentrations correlated negatively with precipitation and positively with temperature range and solar radiation in all accession groups. The geographic region where the orchard is grown is thus very important in the resulting metabolites profiles. Moreover, apple genetics would also play a decisive role as highlighted in the cluster analysis.

/pdf/effect-of-genetics-and-climate-on-apple-sugars-and-organic-3jz4r3uz.pdf

Effect of Genetics and Climate on Apple Sugars and Organic Acids Profiles

A basic knowledge of linkage disequilibrium and population structure is necessary in order to determine the genetic control and identify significant associations with agronomical and phytochemical compounds in apple (Malus × domestica Borkh). In this study, 186 apple accessions (Pop1), representing both Spanish native accessions (94) and non-Spanish cultivars (92) from the EEAD-CSIC apple core collection, were assessed using 23 SSRs markers. Four populations were considered: Pop1, Pop2, Pop3, and Pop4. The initial Pop1 was divided into 150 diploid (Pop2) and 36 triploid accessions (Pop3), while for the inter-chromosomal linkage disequilibrium and the association mapping analysis, 118 phenotype diploid accessions were considered Pop4. Thus, the average number of alleles per locus and observed heterozygosity for the overall sample set (Pop1) were 15.65 and 0.75, respectively. The population structure analysis identified two subpopulations in the diploid accessions (Pop2 and Pop4) and four in the triploids (Pop3). Regarding the Pop4, the population structure with K = 2 subpopulations segregation was in agreement with the UPGMA cluster analysis according to the genetic pairwise distances. Moreover, the accessions seemed to be segregated by their origin (Spanish/non-Spanish) in the clustering analysis. One of the two subpopulations encountered was quite-exclusively formed by non-Spanish accessions (30 out of 33). Furthermore, agronomical and basic fruit quality parameters, antioxidant traits, individual sugars, and organic acids were assessed for the association mapping analysis. A high level of biodiversity was exhibited in the phenotypic characterization of Pop4, and a total of 126 significant associations were found between the 23 SSR markers and the 21 phenotypic traits evaluated. This study also identified many new marker-locus trait associations for the first time, such as in the antioxidant traits or in sugars and organic acids, which may be useful for predictions and for a better understanding of the apple genome.

https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/12/6/1249/pdf?version=1678362334

Population Structure and Association Mapping for Agronomical and Biochemical Traits of a Large Spanish Apple Germplasm

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Behaviour of the urethral striated sphincter and of the bladder in the chronic spinal cat. Implications at the Central Nervous System Level.

Effect of Genetics and Climate on Apple Sugars and Organic Acids Profiles

Population Structure and Association Mapping for Agronomical and Biochemical Traits of a Large Spanish Apple Germplasm