This paper reviews a range of studies under controlled conditions (glasshouse and growth cabinet) focusing on the effects of the interaction between waterlogging (hypoxia) and salinity on the ion relations, growth and survival of higher plants. The literature shows that in general, waterlogging under saline conditions causes increased Na+ and Cl− concentrations in the shoot, due initially to increased rates of transport. These increased concentrations in the shoots have adverse effects on plant growth and survival. It is argued that the interaction between waterlogging and salinity has major implications for saltland management, and for the selection and breeding of plants adapted to saltland.

The interaction between waterlogging and salinity in higher plants: causes, consequences and implications

Our ability to numerically model natural systems has progressed enormously over the last 10–20 years. During the last decade computational power has increased to the stage where we can now have a super-computer on our desk, and the detail and fine scale processes that can be included in models are fantastic. The computational tools available for analysis and display have opened doors beyond the dreams of our forebears. However, as modelling power has increased there has been a concurrent reduction in “data power”, particularly in the collection of hydrological data. While we undoubtedly have access to large datasets of extraordinary technological finesse such as the remotely sensed data from satellites, our collection of more basic and traditional datasets suffers. We can read car number plates from outer space, but we still, in the main, measure rainfall by putting a bucket out in a paddock. This paper discusses the growth in sophistication of hydrological modelling through the last hundred years. The concept of validation or verification of models is questioned, and the role of data in modelling discussed. It is argued that modelling in the absence of adequate data is not science, unless it is to develop hypotheses that are to be tested by observation. Several modelling case studies with and without adequate testing data are discussed. It is also argued that improvement in the management of our environment and water resources will not come with improved models in the absence of improved data collection because we cannot manage what we do not measure.

Hydrological models are so good, do we still need data?

The wheatbelt of Western Australia largely corresponds to a zone of ancient drainage, characterised by highly variable rainfall, long dry summers, low hydraulic gradients, intermittent surface flows and high regolith salt loads. The accumulation and distribution of salt, the rudimentary aquifers with deep watertables, the intermittent flooding and subsequent transpiration of water from the valley sediments, and the low yields of water reaching the ocean were a product of the underlying physical environment and vegetation types capable of using deeply infiltrated water through the dry season. The hydrological and hydrogeochemical changes induced by widespread clearing of this vegetation for dryland agriculture are profound and enduring. Run-off onto and through the valley floors has increased by a factor of five; combined with local rainfall on these valley floors, the resulting increase in groundwater recharge is filling the deep sedimentary materials and bringing highly saline water to the surface. Diffuse recharge has also increased on the slopes and ridges, with saline watertables rising in these lateritic formations as well, providing additional hydraulic heads forcing groundwater towards the valleys. The resulting increase in the groundwater discharge areas is projected to greatly increase flooding risk downstream into the future. A variety of natural, built and agricultural assets are either already impacted or at risk to these phenomena. It is hypothesised that restoring the original hydraulic and hydrological functions of the system will lead to its recovery. This raises several issues: can we design remedies in terms of restoring the original rates of flux (recharge, runoff, etc) or in terms of the original balances (recharge less than aquifer discharge, input of salt into the root zone equal to output)? Secondly, to what degree can revegetation or engineering now restore these original conditions? Finally, we examine the potential for the landscape to recover to its original hydrological and hydrogeochemical state once salinised. Given the advanced state of saline watertable development, with its implications for successful revegetation and restoration of valley transpiration, the changes in soil structure and chemistry, and the immediate implications to valued assets, we posit that an aim of restoring the landscape solely with revegetation, either in terms of rates or balances, is not feasible or even possible. To a degree, one can only restore certain aspects of the original balance via revegetation combined with discharge enhancement and flood mitigation.

Preclearing hydrology of the Western Australia wheatbelt: Target for the future

Hydrogeomorphic processes and scaling issues in the continuum from soil pedons to catchments

This review summarises reported observations of the effects of waterlogging on agricultural production in Australia and briefly discusses potential remediation strategies. Inconsistencies are demonstrated in the current indicators used for assessment of waterlogging potential across agricultural landscapes as well as in parameters measured in waterlogging studies. It is suggested that predictions of waterlogging potential for landscapes should be based on a minimum dataset that includes pedological, topographical, and climate data for the defined area, as well as observations of plant morphological appearance and visible surface water. The review also summarises the effects of low oxygen concentration in soil on rhizosphere processes, and discusses evidence for direct effects on plant physiology of reductions in soil oxygen caused by waterlogging. Finally, the review describes current crop growth, water use, and yield simulation models used in Australia (SWAGMAN, DRAINMOD, and APSIM) that incorporate waterlogging stress. It is suggested that there is scope for modifications to these models based on recent improved understanding of plant physiological responses to waterlogging and on further research. The review concludes that improvements in modelling waterlogging outcomes to assist growth and yield predictions should ultimately enhance management capacity for growers.

https://bioone.org/journals/Crop-and-Pasture-Science/volume-64/issue-6/CP13080/Waterlogging-in-Australian-agricultural-landscapes--a-review-of-plant/10.1071/CP13080.pdf

Waterlogging in Australian agricultural landscapes: a review of plant responses and crop models

Predicting and controlling water logging and groundwater flow in sloping duplex soils in western Australia

Mechanisms and control of water logging and groundwater flow in the ‘Ucarro’ sub-catchment

A bio-physical modelling study is presented which simulates the drainage under an annual clover and a perennial lucerne pasture. The simulations are compared with measurements taken at a trial near Katanning, Western Australia, subject to a Mediterranean climate. The results show the water balance of the site to be dominated by the vertical dimension, with no apparent lateral flow in the B soil horizon. Drainage under lucerne was found to be less than that under the clover during the growing season of the annual pasture. However, our results suggest the dominant drainage control may be site and soil characteristics rather than pasture type. We found that using measured values of hydraulic conductivity led to much higher drainage than could be supported by observations of perched watertables within the A and B horizons. The observations suggest that the subsoils change their structure when they moisten in winter and become much less conductive. In order to model the site, a soil profile had to be invoked which reflected field water table hydrograph observations rather than soil water characteristics determined in the laboratory or from field profile texture observations.

Modelling Drainage and Transient Waterlogging in an Agricultural Catchment

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Predicting and controlling water logging and groundwater flow in sloping duplex soils in western Australia

Mechanisms and control of water logging and groundwater flow in the ‘Ucarro’ sub-catchment

Modelling Drainage and Transient Waterlogging in an Agricultural Catchment