Gastrin-releasing peptide (mammalian bombesin) gene expression in health and disease

Mother’s milk delivered naturally through breastfeeding has been the sole source of infant nutrition in mammalian species for millions of years. Since human beings learned to domesticate cattle about 10,000 years ago, nonhuman mammalian milk also has been used to supplement or replace maternal milk in the human infant. The development and widespread use of commercially prepared infant formula products have been phenomena of the 20th century and notably of the past 6 decades. Such products provide an alternative to breastfeeding that is useful in certain situations. Nonetheless, compelling evidence demonstrates that breastfeeding is an ideal source of infant nutrition whose use is associated with lower rates of postnatal infant mortality in the United States and in other parts of the world.1-3 Human milk helps to protect the infant against a wide variety of infections and to reduce the risk for allergic and autoimmune diseases, the risk of obesity and its complications, and the risk for certain types of neoplasms later in life, and it has been associated with slightly better performances on tests of cognitive development in some studies.3 For these reasons, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that in the absence of specific contraindications (see “Benefits and Risks of Human Milk”) healthy term infants should be exclusively breastfed or fed expressed breast milk beginning within the first hour after birth through 6 months of age and supported with breastfeeding until at least 1 year of age.1-3 This chapter reviews existing information on major aspects of the physiologic, nutritional, and bioactive components of human milk. Developmental Anatomy of the Mammary Gland

Chapter 5 – Human Milk*

Carbohydrates in milks : Analysis, quantities, and significance

Not only does breast milk provides an ideal nutrient composition for the newborn, but it also contains a variety of substances that may actively influence growth and development of the infant and stimulate neonatal protection against gastrointestinal diseases. Hormones, growth factors, cytokines and even whole cells are present in breast milk and act to establish biochemical and immunological communication between mother and child. In addition, milk nutrients such as nucleotides, glutamine and lactoferrin have been shown to influence gastrointestinal development and host defense. The unique properties of milk as a mediator of biochemical messages will be presented and the clinical significance of breastfeeding in the prevention of neonatal gastrointestinal diseases will be discussed.

Human milk as a carrier of biochemical messages.

Milkcontains a significant number of sub stances having peptide characteristics that are known to possess biological activity. The possible physiological im portance for the neonate is discussed in this reviewin light of their effects (epidermal growth factor, nerve growth fac tor, insulin, prolactin, somatostatin, thyroid-releasing hor mone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, growth hormoneâ€"re leasing factor, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, erythropoietin, bombesin- like peptides, calcitonin, AŸ-casomorphinsand delta-sleep- peptides) on suckling mammals after gastrointestinal administration. J. Nutr. 119: 1543-1551, 1989.

Search for role of milk-borne biologically active peptides for the suckling.

Changes in concentration of insulin, growth hormone (GH) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in the whey fraction of mammary secretion of women during late pregnancy and lactogenesis were determined by radioimmunoassay. The milk hormone changes were compared to changes in the concentration of milk lactose, glucose and proteins which reflect the transition from colostrum to milk production during lactogenesis. During late pregnancy the average concentrations of insulin, GH and TSH in the colostrum of 2 women were 114.6 microU ml-1, 21.7 microU ml-1 and 14.1 microU ml-1, respectively. The concentrations of these hormones fell from high to low levels between day 1 and day 2 post partum concomitantly with the changes in the concentration of milk lactose, glucose and protein. On day 5 post partum the average milk concentrations of insulin, GH and TSH were 21.0 microU ml-1, 4.0 microU ml-1, and 5.0 microU ml-1, respectively. Similar milk hormone changes occurred in non breast feeding women during the first 11 days post partum. During 2 to 13 months of lactation one woman, the average concentration of milk insulin was 12 microU ml-1. In another woman, from 0 to 22 days after termination of breast feeding, the concentration of insulin increased from 19 to 56 microU ml-1. There were significant positive correlations between hormones and total protein and negative correlations between hormones and lactose, and hormones and glucose in women during lactogenesis and involution. The results showed that the changes in insulin, GH and TSH in milk were closely related to changes in secretory activity and permeability of the breast.

Milk insulin, GH and TSH: relationship to changes in milk lactose, glucose and protein during lactogenesis in women.

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Milk insulin, GH and TSH: relationship to changes in milk lactose, glucose and protein during lactogenesis in women.