Additive manufacturing (AM) alias 3D printing translates computer-aided design (CAD) virtual 3D models into physical objects. By digital slicing of CAD, 3D scan, or tomography data, AM builds objects layer by layer without the need for molds or machining. AM enables decentralized fabrication of customized objects on demand by exploiting digital information storage and retrieval via the Internet. The ongoing transition from rapid prototyping to rapid manufacturing prompts new challenges for mechanical engineers and materials scientists alike. Because polymers are by far the most utilized class of materials for AM, this Review focuses on polymer processing and the development of polymers and advanced polymer systems specifically for AM. AM techniques covered include vat photopolymerization (stereolithography), powder bed fusion (SLS), material and binder jetting (inkjet and aerosol 3D printing), sheet lamination (LOM), extrusion (FDM, 3D dispensing, 3D fiber deposition, and 3D plotting), and 3D bioprinting....

Polymers for 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing

Two-photon excitation provides a means of activating chemical or physical processes with high spatial resolution in three dimensions and has made possible the development of three-dimensional fluorescence imaging, optical data storage, and lithographic microfabrication. These applications take advantage of the fact that the two-photon absorption probability depends quadratically on intensity, so under tight-focusing conditions, the absorption is confined at the focus to a volume of order λ3 (where λ is the laser wavelength). Any subsequent process, such as fluorescence or a photoinduced chemical reaction, is also localized in this small volume. Although three-dimensional data storage and microfabrication have been illustrated using two-photon-initiated polymerization of resins incorporating conventional ultraviolet-absorbing initiators, such photopolymer systems exhibit low photosensitivity as the initiators have small two-photon absorption cross-sections (δ). Consequently, this approach requires high laser power, and its widespread use remains impractical. Here we report on a class of π;-conjugated compounds that exhibit large δ (as high as 1, 250 × 10−50 cm4 s per photon) and enhanced two-photon sensitivity relative to ultraviolet initiators. Two-photon excitable resins based on these new initiators have been developed and used to demonstrate a scheme for three-dimensional data storage which permits fluorescent and refractive read-out, and the fabrication of three-dimensional micro-optical and micromechanical structures, including photonic-bandgap-type structures.

Two-photon polymerization initiators for three-dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication

Today cross-cutting approaches, where molecular engineering and clever processing are synergistically coupled, allow the chemist to tailor complex hybrid systems of various shapes with perfect mastery at different size scales, composition, functionality, and morphology. Hybrid materials with organic–inorganic or bio–inorganic character represent not only a new field of basic research but also, via their remarkable new properties and multifunctional nature, hybrids offer prospects for many new applications in extremely diverse fields. The description and discussion of the major applications of hybrid inorganic–organic (or biologic) materials are the major topic of this critical review. Indeed, today the very large set of accessible hybrid materials span a wide spectrum of properties which yield the emergence of innovative industrial applications in various domains such as optics, micro-electronics, transportation, health, energy, housing, and the environment among others (526 references).

Applications of advanced hybrid organic–inorganic nanomaterials: from laboratory to market

Metamaterials exhibit properties beyond those exhibited by conventional materials in conventional scenarios. These have been investigated both theoretically and experimentally at length. In many cases the underpinning physical understanding of metamaterials has greatly preceded our ability to manufacture constituent structures. However, the development of additive manufacturing techniques gives new possibilities for the fabrication of complex metamaterial structures, many of which cannot be realised through conventional fabrication methods. The literature to date contains contributions from a diverse group of researchers from the physical sciences, mathematics, and manufacturing technology in the creation of metamaterials for electromagnetic, acoustic and mechanical applications. It is proposed that additive manufacturing holds the key to realise the capabilities of this vibrant research community and permit the creation of new paradigms in fundamental structures but also exploitation through application. For this purpose, a literature review is presented which identifies key advances in metamaterials alongside additive manufacturing and proposes new opportunities for researchers to work together through intra/inter disciplinary research to realise structures which exhibit extraordinary behaviour(s). This review represents a comprehensive account of the state-of-the-art in the production of such metamaterials using additive manufacturing methods and highlights areas, which, based on trends observed in the literature, are worthy of further research and require a coordinated effort on behalf of the afore mentioned disciplines in order to advance the state-of-the-art.

Additive manufacturing of metamaterials: A review

Recent progress in the field of single- and two-photon nanofabrication, both 2- and 3-dimensional, in photopolymerizable resins and in films of photoisomerizable azopolymers are reviewed. The basic processes as well as technological advances and applications of nanofabrication by light are discussed. Recent advances and achievements in polymer photomechanics and light-activated molecular movement in azopolymers are also reviewed.

Laser nanofabrication in photoresists and azopolymers

Optical devices with micro- and nanooptical elements using polymers and, in particular nano-scaled organic–inorganic hybrid materials such as ORMOCER®s, will be beyond of the next generation of optical components. For the generation of photonic elements, 3D photonic bandgap materials have been proposed as the basis of many devices. In order to create complete 3D photonic bandgaps, materials enabling high refractive index contrast are needed. Combining suitable materials with highly sophisticated processing methods such as two-photon polymerization (2PP) using femtosecond lasers is a step towards novel photonic elements. The materials and the patterning process will be discussed with respect these applications. In order to demonstrate the potential of the 2PP method, different classes of materials are investigated. (© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Investigations on the generation of photonic crystals using two‐photon polymerization (2PP) of inorganic–organic hybrid polymers with ultra‐short laser pulses

Investigations on the Generation of Photonic Crystals using Two‐Photon Polymerization (2PP) of Inorganic–Organic Hybrid Polymers with Ultra‐Short Laser Pulses

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Investigations on the generation of photonic crystals using two‐photon polymerization (2PP) of inorganic–organic hybrid polymers with ultra‐short laser pulses

Investigations on the Generation of Photonic Crystals using Two‐Photon Polymerization (2PP) of Inorganic–Organic Hybrid Polymers with Ultra‐Short Laser Pulses