Closures have an important influence on wine quality during ageing in bottle. The increasing diversity of wine stoppers and their effect in wine development after bottling has been a subject of intense research. This review focuses on the impact of closures on wine quality during bottle storage. Studies dealing with the effectiveness of closures in protecting wine quality during storage and research conducted in order to determine the impact of closures on wine organoleptic properties are discussed. Several types of closures are described and, more particularly, differences in their permeability leading to variable levels of oxygen in the bottle, the role of closures on the removal and/or addition of undesirable compounds from/to wine are critically reviewed.

Impact of closures on wine post-bottling development: a review

The intense passion fruit-type aroma of New Zealand Sauvignon blanc wines, attributed to high concentrations of the varietal thiols 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol (3-MH) and 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol acetate (3-MHA), is known to diminish rapidly over just one year in the bottle. It is thus important to understand the processes by which the aroma compounds are lost during storage to improve the shelf life of these wines. The loss of varietal thiols has been linked to polyphenol oxidation, catalyzed by metals, a process that can be inhibited by antioxidants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), ascorbic acid, and glutathione. The evolution of 3-MH and 3-MHA was monitored in commercially bottled New Zealand Sauvignon blanc wines, stored in the dark at 15°C for 7 months, together with changes in polyphenol content and small molecule antioxidants. The acetate ester 3-MHA was the least stable of the varietal thiols and declined steadily in concentration following first-order kinetic decay, whereas 3-MH barely decreased over the first 3 months of bottle storage, and was instead followed by an increase in concentration after a further 4 months. These results pointed to hydrolysis of 3-MHA to 3-MH as the major loss mechanism in the commercial wines during the initial months of storage. Concomitantly, the flavan-3-ols exhibited a greater susceptibility to oxidation and polymerization reactions compared with the more stable hydroxycinnamic acids. Glutathione concentrations also declined steadily over the first year and would thus only provide protection against oxidative thiol losses up to that point. Free SO2 remained relatively stable in the commercially bottled Sauvignon blanc wines after an initial drop in concentration associated with oxygen entry at bottling.

Stability of Varietal Thiols in Commercial Sauvignon blanc Wines

A Californian Cabernet Sauvignon was stored for 6 months at three different constant temperatures to study the combined effects of storage temperature and packaging configuration. Glass bottles with natural cork, synthetic cork, and screw cap closure, as well as two Bag-in-Box treatments, were used in the experiment. A trained sensory panel was able to detect significant changes in aroma, flavor, taste, mouthfeel, and color attributes among the samples, differences that were found also with various chemical and physical measurements (volatile profile, polyphenol pattern, enological parameters, color space). Additionally, two commonly used polyphenol assays were compared to each other in terms of their ability to detect the changes in the polyphenol profile. Generally, sample changes were more pronounced due to the different storage temperatures, with 30 sensory attributes differing significantly among the three different storage temperatures, while only 17 sensory attributes showed a significant packaging...

The combined effects of storage temperature and packaging on the sensory, chemical, and physical properties of a Cabernet Sauvignon wine.

/pdf/chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-3xo4ivxqlf.pdf

Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging

Background Gas transfer, and especially oxygen, through wine closures has been studied since the 90's. It started with the problem of premature oxidation in wine. To that purpose, different techniques, issued from food packaging and wine analysis, have been developed to measure gas permeation through wine stoppers. Scope and approach The objectives of this review is, first, to briefly remind the basic knowledge of gas transfer through materials and applied to wine stoppers. Then, after a short survey about the techniques of measurement, a compilation of all currently available permeation data has been done using the international system of units (when conversion was possible). This finally allowed to establish a critical appraisal between the different methods and closures. Key findings and conclusions Although relying on different principles, with different accuracy (and respective pros and cons), all methods are well suited to investigate gas transfer through closures. The manometric method appears as the most versatile one, allowing to study all gases with various sample geometry. Whatever the method used, it appears that the technical stoppers are the lowest permeable ones to gas transfer, followed by screwcaps, natural corks and synthetic stoppers. Finally, it is worthy to note that the diffusion coefficient, as an intrinsic parameter, is the most relevant parameter to characterize the gas barrier properties of wine stoppers.

Gas transfer through wine closures: A critical review

Background and Aims: Many articles evaluating oxygen ingress for different wine stoppers have been published. However, none of these have studied the impact of the stopper type on oxygen ingress during the bottling process. This study tested a range of commercially available stopper types on oxygen entry into headspace during bottling.

Methods and Results: Oxygen concentration in the headspace was measured using the Winkler method. Stopper type significantly (P < 0.05) affected oxygen introduced into the headspace. Oxygen concentration correlated well with the volume and the overpressure of the headspace and was also strongly influenced by stopper height. Bottles sealed with natural cork had the lowest headspace oxygen concentration (1.31�2.12 mg/L) despite these stoppers having a lower height (38 mm) than the others tested. Non-cork stoppers were associated with higher oxygen concentrations, probably because they generated higher overpressure. Bottles sealed with screw cap and synthetic stoppers had the highest oxygen concentration (3.29�3.82 mg/L) and, in the case of screw caps, this was probably a result of greater headspace volume. Headspace oxygen concentration for the synthetic stoppers and the screw cap was approximately equivalent to the oxygen entrance through natural cork during the first 8�10 months of ageing.

Conclusions: Stopper type can affect oxygen ingress during bottling because of the changes in headspace volume and overpressure.

Significance of the Study: Along with permeability, stopper selection should also consider the effects of stopper type on the amount of oxygen that initially enters the headspace. If the bottler is not equipped with an efficient vacuum and/or inert gas system, the impact of the stopper type on the entry of oxygen is an important consideration.

Impact of stopper type on oxygen ingress during wine bottling when using an inert gas cover

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Impact of stopper type on oxygen ingress during wine bottling when using an inert gas cover