Power electronics converters (PECs) are responsible for efficiently converting electrical energy between power generators, storage systems and power consumers/loads. The PECs are subjected to complicated power loading factors throughout their operations and, thus, are proven to have issues regarding lifetime. Therefore, according to the original equipment manufacturers and suppliers, the reliability of the PECs is a key priority in order to be widely used and accepted in the industries. In this context, this review article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of reliability assessment strategies and testing protocols for ensuring the lifetime requirements of PECs. In addition, the paper conducts a thorough investigation of various strategies that are employed to enhance reliability during the design and useful life phase, including the analysis of different types of failure mechanisms, identification of factors contributing to failures, and assessment of techniques for estimating and regulating junction temperatures to prolong the lifetime of the system under real-life operating conditions. Furthermore, the article highlights the challenges encountered in monitoring and predicting component degradation and outlines the crucial steps for conducting a functional safety analysis. Particular emphasis is provided on summarizing the different accelerated aging tests for power electronics converters used in automotive applications, as these tests have yet to be fully covered in previous literature. This study provides an overview and guidelines for understanding the reliability of PECs and identifying potential areas for future research. Finally, the paper concludes most of the ongoing research and innovations in this area and provides insights into the future trends and challenges in enhancing the reliability of power electronics converters.

A Comprehensive Overview of Reliability Assessment Strategies and Testing of Power Electronics Converters

A high-gain interleaved DC-DC converter with reduced components for EV charging application

Assessment of E-mode GaN technology, practical power loss, and efficiency modelling of iL2C resonant DC-DC converter for xEV charging applications

The rising Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions stemming from the extensive use of automobiles across the globe represent a critical environmental challenge, contributing significantly to phenomena such as global warming and the deterioration of air quality. To address these challenges, there is a critical need for research and development in electric vehicles (EVs) and their associated charging infrastructure, including off-board and on-board chargers (OBCs). This paper aims to bridge the gaps in existing review literature by offering a comprehensive review of both integrated and non-integrated OBCs for EVs, based on the authors’ knowledge at the time of writing. The paper begins by outlining trends in the EV market, including voltage levels, power ratings, and relevant standards. It then provides a detailed analysis of two-level and multi-level power converter topologies, covering AC-DC power factor correction (PFC) and isolated DC-DC topologies. Subsequently, it discusses single-stage and two-stage non-integrated OBC solutions. Additionally, various categories of integrated OBCs (iOBCs) are explored, accompanied by relevant examples. The paper also includes comparison tables containing technical specifications and key characteristics for reference and analysis.

Non-Integrated and Integrated On-Board Battery Chargers (iOBCs) for Electric Vehicles (EVs): A Critical Review

Multiport power conversion topologies provide the capability of multiple independent converters with a single transformer having multiple windings (i.e., ports) potentially increasing power densities and enabling flexible (and bidirectional) power routing. In automotive onboard charger (OBC), the multiport approach combined with symmetrical series resonant circuits, the so-called multiport series resonant converter (MSRC), allows for a galvanic isolated connection between all ports: the grid-side converter (i.e., usually an AC/DC power factor correction (PFC) stage), vehicle’s main and the auxiliary low-voltage (LV) battery. The variation of the battery voltage significantly affects the MSRC operation, particularly for light loads at a low state-of-charge, and high losses can be experienced since zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) conditions are lost. In addition to the conventional control approach of the MSRC, where the power flow is set with a phase-shift between the individual full bridges or by changing the switching frequency, this paper proposes a novel and coordinated approach, including the manipulation of both and the additional modulation of the duty cycle as a function of the DC-link voltages, aiming to introduce a zero-voltage interval on the full bridge output voltages. A full mathematical description of the adopted converter topology is provided, including accurate simulation models that allow a comparison between the proposed duty cycle mode and the conventional control strategy. A detailed description of achieving ZVS within the connected full bridges is also included. Experimental results validate the proposal and demonstrate significant efficiency improvements compared to standard control approaches.

Increasing Light Load Efficiency in Phase-Shifted, Variable Frequency Multiport Series Resonant Converters

In this article, a new approach for smoothing junction temperature fluctuations through active thermal control is proposed. By utilizing a current-source gate drive and controlling switching transition, switching losses can be regulated in a way to control junction temperature swing which is a dominant reason of wear-out failure mechanisms in MOSFETs. The simulation results indicate a 29% increase in lifetime. Additionally, the experimental results demonstrate the capability of this approach to control the junction temperature of a MOSFET effectively. 

Active Thermal Control of a DC-DC Converter Using Dynamic Gate-drive for Reliability Improvement

High voltage GaN power transistors can significantly improve the key performance indices of a power electronic converter in terms of efficiency, reliability and power density. This brings a potentiality for widespread adoption of these semiconductors in e-mobility applications such as on-board chargers (OBCs) in electric vehicles. According to literature surveys, among all semiconductor technologies GaN-based high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs) devices are utilized to design compact, efficient and reliable OBCs. In this paper, a component-level (i.e., switch, capacitor and magnetics) optimization model is proposed based on Multi-objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) technique to assess the relationship between size (cm3), losses (W), and reliability (number of cycles) of the components used in OBCs. Besides, electrical circuit models establishing the relationship between these components for a dual-stage OBC architecture are presented. Finally, Pareto-front solutions for these components under the worst-case operation scenario are presented for the components used in the AC-DC stage of a bidirectional phase-modular three-phase OBC with a rated power of 11 kW.

Multi-Objective Optimization of Bi-directional On-Board Chargers Based on 650V GaN Power Transistors

The wide-scale adoption and accelerated growth of electric vehicle (EV) use and increasing demand for faster charging necessitate the research and development of power electronic converters to achieve high-power, compact, and reliable EV charging solutions. Although the fast charging concept is often associated with off-board DC chargers, the importance of on-board AC fast charging is undeniable with the increasing battery capacities. This article comprehensively reviews gallium nitride (GaN) semiconductor-based bidirectional on-board charger (OBC) topologies used in both 400 V and 800 V EV applications. Moreover, comparative evaluations of GaN-based bi-directional OBC topologies regarding power conversion losses (conduction loss and soft switching capabilities), power density, implementation considerations, power quality, electromagnetic interference, and reliability aspects have been presented. The status of commercially available GaN power modules, advancements in GaN technology, applicable industry standards, and application requirements for OBCs have been also included in this study. Finally, in light of forthcoming advancements in GaN power transistor technology, this study highlights potential areas of research related to the reviewed topologies. Such research can aid researchers and designers in improving the performance and user experience of electric vehicles, ultimately supporting the widespread adoption of EVs.

/pdf/a-comprehensive-review-of-gan-based-bi-directional-on-board-1l7cyca9.pdf

A Comprehensive Review of GaN-Based Bi-Directional On-Board Charger Topologies and Modulation Methods

Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Transistors (GaN HEMTs) enable higher efficiency, higher power density, and more compact passive components resulting in lighter, smaller, and more efficient power electronic systems for transportation electrification applications as opposed to conventional Silicon (Si) based devices. The industry is actively embracing GaN HEMTs for 22 kW or higher power systems, particularly in power density-oriented applications such as electric vehicles (EVs). This preference is driven by the remarkable figures of merit exhibited by GaN HEMTs, surpassing those of conventional Si devices. Thermal considerations as well as circuit parasitic components in high power density GaN-based applications play a significant role in achieving overall performance. This article explores a cooling approach that utilizes a copper heat spreader to enhance heat transfer capability, as well as its potential impact on the stray capacitance between the GaN transistor substrate and heat sink. After evaluating the properties of various thermal interface materials (TIMs), this article addresses the challenges involved in implementing a cooling fixture for GaN transistors and offers potential solutions. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations and experiments are performed to verify the thermal and electrical performance. Test results show that with the applied method the thermal resistance between the GaN transistor case and its ambient surroundings through the heat sink can be reduced up to 30% while keeping the same stray capacitance value. 

Technical Assessment of Thermal Management Techniques for GaN Power Transistors: Heat Spreaders

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Papers

Active Thermal Control of a DC-DC Converter Using Dynamic Gate-drive for Reliability Improvement

Multi-Objective Optimization of Bi-directional On-Board Chargers Based on 650V GaN Power Transistors

A Comprehensive Review of GaN-Based Bi-Directional On-Board Charger Topologies and Modulation Methods

Technical Assessment of Thermal Management Techniques for GaN Power Transistors: Heat Spreaders