Three-dimensional (3D) printing technologies are advanced manufacturing technologies based on computer-aided design digital models to create personalized 3D objects automatically. They have been widely used in the industry, design, engineering, and manufacturing fields for nearly 30 years. Three-dimensional printing has many advantages in process engineering, with applications in dentistry ranging from the field of prosthodontics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and oral implantology to orthodontics, endodontics, and periodontology. This review provides a practical and scientific overview of 3D printing technologies. First, it introduces current 3D printing technologies, including powder bed fusion, photopolymerization molding, and fused deposition modeling. Additionally, it introduces various factors affecting 3D printing metrics, such as mechanical properties and accuracy. The final section presents a summary of the clinical applications of 3D printing in dentistry, including manufacturing working models and main applications in the fields of prosthodontics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and oral implantology. The 3D printing technologies have the advantages of high material utilization and the ability to manufacture a single complex geometry; nevertheless, they have the disadvantages of high cost and time-consuming postprocessing. The development of new materials and technologies will be the future trend of 3D printing in dentistry, and there is no denying that 3D printing will have a bright future.

/pdf/a-review-of-3d-printing-in-dentistry-technologies-affecting-19tcff9hi9.pdf

A Review of 3D Printing in Dentistry: Technologies, Affecting Factors, and Applications.

Stroke is the third most common cause of death in the world, and a major source of a disability. This invaluable reference will provide clinicians caring for stroke patients with ready access to the optimal evidence for best practice in acute stroke treatment and secondary prevention. The author, who is a Member of the Editorial Board of the Cochrane Stroke Review Group, describes all available treatments for acute stroke and secondary prevention, the rationale for using them, and, where available, the highest-level evidence (level 1) for their safety and effectiveness. Where level 1 evidence is not available, he offers advice on reasonable practice and information about current research. The evidence for each treatment is followed by the author’s interpretations, and the implications of the evidence in the care of stroke patients. This is therefore an essential resource for clinicians, translating into practice advances that have been made in the treatment and prevention of stroke, and suggesting the most appropriate interventions.

An evidence-based approach.

Temporomandibular disorders and bruxism in childhood and adolescence: review of the literature.

Popular media now often present 3D printing as a widely employed technology for the production of dental prostheses. This article aims to show, based on factual information, to what extent 3D printing can be used in dental laboratories and dental practices at present. It attempts to present a rational evaluation of todays´ applications of 3D printing technology in the context of dental restorations. In addition, the article discusses future perspectives and examines the ongoing viability of traditional dental laboratory services and manufacturing processes. It also shows which expertise is needed for the digital additive manufacturing of dental restorations.

https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/9/2010/pdf

3D Printing in Digital Prosthetic Dentistry: An Overview of Recent Developments in Additive Manufacturing.

The purpose of this paper is to review the available literature on three-dimensionally printed complete dentures in terms of novel biomaterials, fabrication techniques and workflow, clinical performance and patient satisfaction. The methodology included applying a search strategy, defining inclusion and exclusion criteria, selecting studies and forming tables to summarize the results. Searches of PubMed, Scopus, and Embase databases were performed independently by two reviewers to gather literature published between 2010 and 2020. A total of 126 titles were obtained from the electronic database, and the application of exclusion criteria resulted in the identification of 21 articles pertaining to printed technology for complete dentures. Current innovations and developments in digital dentistry have successfully led to the fabrication of removable dental prostheses using CAD/CAM technologies. Milled dentures have been studied more than 3D printed ones in the currently available literature. The limited number of clinical studies, mainly case reports, suggest current indications of 3D printing in denture fabrication process to be custom tray, record bases, trial, interim or immediate dentures but not definitive prostheses fabrication. Limitations include poor esthetics and retention, inability to balance occlusion and low printer resolution. Initial studies on digital dentures have shown promising short-term clinical performance, positive patient-related results and reasonable cost-effectiveness. 3D printing has potential to modernize and streamline the denture fabrication techniques, materials and workflows. However, more research is required on the existing and developing materials and printers to allow for advancement and increase its application in removable prosthodontics.

/pdf/3d-printed-complete-removable-dental-prostheses-a-narrative-4m46s96ekz.pdf

3D printed complete removable dental prostheses: a narrative review.

Purpose To evaluate and compare the mechanical properties (flexural strength and surface hardness) of different materials and technologies for denture base fabrication. The study emphasized the digital technologies of computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) and three-dimensional (3D) printing. Materials and methods A total of 160 rectangular specimens were fabricated from three conventional heat-polymerized (ProBase Hot, Paladon 65, and Interacryl Hot), three CAD/CAM produced (IvoBase CAD, Interdent CC disc PMMA, and Polident CAD/CAM disc), one 3D-printed (NextDent Base), and one polyamide material (Vertex ThermoSens) for denture base fabrication. The flexural strength test was the three-point flexure test, while hardness testing was conducted using the Brinell method. The data were analyzed using descriptive and analytical statistics (α = 0.05). Results During flexural testing, the IvoBase CAD and Vertex ThermoSens specimens did not fracture during loading. The flexural strength values of the other groups ranged from 71.7 ± 7.4 MPa to 111.9 ± 4.3 MPa. The surface hardness values ranged from 67.13 ± 10.64 MPa to 145.66 ± 2.22 MPa. There were significant differences between the tested materials for both flexural strength and surface hardness. There were also differences between some materials with the same polymerization type. CAD/CAM and polyamide materials had the highest flexural strength values. Two groups of CAD/CAM materials had the highest surface hardness values, while a third, along with the polyamide material, had the lowest. The 3D-printed materials had the lowest flexural strength values. Conclusions Generally, CAD/CAM materials show better mechanical properties than heat-polymerized and 3D-printed acrylics do. Nevertheless, a material's polymerization type is no guarantee of its optimal mechanical properties.

Comparison of Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed, CAD/CAM, and Conventional Denture Base Materials.

Dentists and dental students can be exposed to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) during routine work. The aims of this study were to assess a group of dental students' knowledge about HIV, HBV, and HCV infections; assess their attitudes and risk perceptions about the treatment of patients with HIV, HBV, and HCV; and identify factors associated with their knowledge and willingness to treat these patients. An anonymous survey was administered to 534 predoctoral students at the School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb, Croatia. The response rate was 71.9 percent. Students' knowledge increased with each year of study. Senior students (in their third, fourth, and fifth years) had more professional attitudes and were significantly more positive about dentists' professional obligation to treat patients who are HIV-positive than were junior students (in their first and second years; p=0.0002). Senior students also expressed significantly more willingness to treat intravenous drug users and patients with hepatitis (p=0.016 and p=0.033, respectively). Female students were significantly more convinced than male students that routine dental treatment carried a significant risk of HIV and hepatitis infection (p=0.025). These students' knowledge negatively correlated with the lack of willingness to treat intravenous drug users and patients with hepatitis, and they expressed their willingness to receive further theoretical and practical education on this topic.

Treating Patients with HIV and Hepatitis B and C Infections: Croatian Dental Students’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Risk Perceptions

Studies have indicated that patients with TMD demonstrate increased somatization, stress, anxiety, and depression relative to healthy individuals, and a consistent relationship has been demonstrated among anxiety, general somatic complaints, and TMD-related pain. The objectives of this study were to determine the differernces in depression and somatization in patients in different RDC/TMD axis I diagnostic groups and to investigate the role of psychological factors in TMD. The RDC/TMD is divided into 2 axes. Axis I involves the clinical TMD conditions, and axis II involves the pain-related disability and psychological status. One hundred fifty-four patients (37 male and 117 female ; mean age, 39.0 +/- 14.5 years) with RDC/TMD-defined clinical TMD were selected. Patients were subsequently classified into 7 groups based on the presence of the various RDC/TMD axis I diagnostic groups. The two main psychological parameters assessed in axis II were depression and somatization. The both psychological parameters were measured with the subscales of the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90). Differences in mean Symptom Checklist-90 scores between groups were compared by analysis of variance/Scheffe tests to contrast depression and somatization levels between the various axis I diagnostic groups (P = 0.05). The frequencies of the different groups were as follows: group A, 35.7% ; group B, 18.2% ; group C, 7.8% ; group D, 9.1% ; group E, 13.0% ; group F, 9.1% ; group G, 7.1%. Approximately 55% of patients were clinically depressed, and 65% had moderate to severe somatization. Differences in means depression and somatization with pain item scores were significant between groups (P < 0.05). Patients diagnosed with myofascial pain and other joint conditions (group E) had significantly higher levels of depression (P = 0.014) and somatization (P = 0.032) than patients diagnosed with only disk displacements (group B). Psychological factors are generally recognized as important variables in the diagnosis of orofacial pain.

Psychologic status in patients with temporomandibular disorders.

Statement of problem With the emergence of digital technologies, new materials have become available for occlusal devices. However, data are scarce about these different materials and technologies and their mechanical properties. Purpose The purpose of this in vitro study was to investigate the flexural strength and surface hardness of different materials using different technologies for occlusal device fabrication, with an emphasis on the digital technologies of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD-CAM) and 3D printing. Material and methods A total of 140 rectangular specimens were fabricated from two 3D-printed (VarseoWax Splint and Ortho Rigid), 2 CAD-CAM–produced (Ceramill Splintec and CopraDur), and 3 conventional autopolymerizing occlusal device materials (ProBase Cold, Resilit S, and Orthocryl) according to ISO 20795-1:2013. Flexural strength and surface hardness were determined for 10 specimens of each tested material using the 3-point bend test and the Brinell method. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and 1-way ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections (α=.05). Results Surface hardness values ranged from 28.5 ±2.5 MPa to 116.2 ±1.6 MPa. During flexural testing, neither the CopraDur nor the VarseoWax Splint specimens fractured during loading within the end limits of the penetrant’s possible movement. Flexural strength values for other groups ranged from 75.0 ±12.0 MPa to 104.9 ±6.2 MPa. Statistical analysis determined significant differences among the tested materials for flexural strength and surface hardness. Conclusions Mechanical properties among different occlusal device materials were significantly different. Acrylic resins were less flexible than polyamide and nonacrylic occlusal device materials for 3D printing but had higher and more consistent values of surface hardness. Clinicians should consider the different mechanical properties of the available materials when choosing occlusal device materials.

A study of the flexural strength and surface hardness of different materials and technologies for occlusal device fabrication.

Torus palatinus (TP) and torus mandibularis (TM) are non-pathological outgrowths of unclear etiology that develop from the jaw bone. The purpose of the present study was to report on the prevalence, shape and location of TP and TM in the population of the Central Dalmatian region, Croatia. The study comprised of 1679 subjects, 985 females and 694 males, age range from 9 to 99 years who were examined by clinical examination and analysis of the plaster casts. Torus palatinus was found in 42.9% subjects and torus mandibularis in 12.6% of the subjects. Spindle-shaped torus palatinus was the most frequent type (45.6%). The most frequent type of torus mandibularis was bilateral solitary torus mandibularis (35.4%). Furthermore, torus palatinus was found in 40.1% of the total number of females and in 46.8% of the total number of males, indicating a significantly higher prevalence in the male population (p = 0.006). Torus mandibularis was found in 11.3% of the female population and in 14.6% of the male population, again indicating significantly higher prevalence in the male population (p = 0.046). The results of this study show significantly higher prevalence of torus palatinus and torus mandibularis in the male subjects. Furthermore, no differences in the prevalence of either TM or TP regarding age were found.

/pdf/prevalence-of-torus-palatinus-and-torus-mandibularis-in-the-3vokmq9zj6.pdf

Prevalence of torus palatinus and torus mandibularis in the Split-Dalmatian County, Croatia

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