The economics and the environmental benignity of different colors of hydrogen

Hydrogen is one of the prospective clean energies that could potentially address two pressing areas of global concern, namely energy crises and environmental issues. Nowadays, fossil-based technologies are widely used to produce hydrogen and release higher greenhouse gas emissions during the process. Decarbonizing the planet has been one of the major goals in the recent decades. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to find clean, sustainable, and reliable hydrogen production technologies with low costs and zero emissions. Therefore, this study aims to analyse the hydrogen generation from solar and wind energy sources and observe broad prospects with hybrid renewable energy sources in producing green hydrogen. The study mainly focuses on the critical assessment of solar, wind, and hybrid-powered electrolysis technologies in producing hydrogen. Furthermore, the key challenges and opportunities associated with commercial-scale deployment are addressed. Finally, the potential applications and their scopes are discussed to analyse the important barriers to the overall commercial development of solar-wind-based hydrogen production systems. The study found that the production of hydrogen appears to be the best candidate to be employed for multiple purposes, blending the roles of fuel energy carrier and energy storage modality. Further studies are recommended to find technical and sustainable solutions to overcome the current issues that are identified in this study.

Prospect of Green Hydrogen Generation from Hybrid Renewable Energy Sources: A Review

Countries worldwide are seeking to decarbonize the planet by 2050 to mitigate climate change. Green hydrogen (H2) from water electrolysis is vital to worldwide decarbonization. Consequently, electrolysis-based green H2 production for large-scale renewable energy power plants and other industrial and transportation applications has grown in popularity. The main objective of this work was to provide a recent review and evaluation of water electrolysis for green H2 production. In this review, the water electrolysis process, which involves the electrochemical water splitting and photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting and their techno-commercial prospects including H2 production cost, along with recent developments in electrode and photoelectrode materials, and their environmental aspects for green H2 production were summarized. The results showed that the Ni-based catalyst improved the electrocatalytic activity at a current density of 10 mA/cm2, while TiO2-based catalysts enhanced PEC water-splitting processes with superior solar to H2 (STH) efficiency (3.7–16.9%). The levelized cost of H2 (LCOH) for PEC and polymer exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis is almost similar about 9 $/kgH2, and combining water electrolysis with wind and solar energy decreases the LCOH, which surpassed coal power generation by 40%. According to the results of a life cycle assessment (LCA), global warming potential (GWP) is the environmental effect category that causes the most concern and is the subject of the most research. The PEC-based water splitting process is the most environmentally friendly H2 production method since it emits the lowest GWP per kg of produced H2 (1.0 kg CO2/Kg H2) in comparison to wind-based PEM water electrolysis (4.0 kg CO2/Kg H2) and PV-solar-based PEM water electrolysis (1.5 kg CO2/Kg H2). Interestingly, the case studies in various countries related to the green H2 were also discussed. Finally, the future of green H2 production and the challenges it faces in achieving cost-effective commercial applications were discussed. 

Recent review and evaluation of green hydrogen production via water electrolysis for a sustainable and clean energy society

Power system with a high proportion of renewable energy sources is one of the keys to implementing the energy revolution and achieving the goal of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality. As a fast-growing clean energy source, hydrogen plays a pivotal role in sustainable energy. This paper comprehensively describes the advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen energy in modern power systems, for its production, storage, and applications. The paper first reviews the advantages of hydrogen energy and then systematically discusses the technology of electric hydrogen production with modern power systems. Then, the technical problems and challenges of applying hydrogen energy are summarized, and the future development trend of hydrogen energy in power systems is finally presented. 

A review of hydrogen generation, storage, and applications in power system

Hydrogen (H2) is a possible energy transporter and feedstock for energy decarbonization, transportation, and chemical sectors while reducing global warming's consequences. The predominant commercial method for producing H2 today is steam methane reforming (SMR). However, there is still room for development in process intensification, energy optimization, and environmental concerns related to CO2 emissions. Reactors using metallic membranes (MRs) can handle both problems. Compared to traditional reactors, MRs operates at substantially lower pressures and temperatures. As a result, capital and operational costs may be significantly cheaper than traditional reactors. Furthermore, metallic membranes (MMs), particularly Pd and its alloys, naturally permit only H2 permeability, enabling the production of a stream with a purity of up to 99.999%. This review describes several methods for H2 production based on the energy sources utilized. SRM with CO2 capture and storage (CCUS), pyrolysis of methane, and water electrolysis are all investigated as process technologies. A debate based on a color code was also created to classify the purity of H2 generation. Although producing H2 using fossil fuels is presently the least expensive method, green H2 generation has the potential to become an affordable alternative in the future. From 2030 onward, green H2 is anticipated to be less costly than blue hydrogen. Green H2 is more expensive than fossil-based H2 since it uses more energy. Blue H2 has several tempting qualities, but the CCUS technology is pricey, and blue H2 contains carbon. At this time, almost 80-95% of CO2 can be stored and captured by the CCUS technology. Nanomaterials are becoming more significant in solving problems with H2 generation and storage. Sustainable nanoparticles, such as photocatalysts and bio-derived particles, have been emphasized for H2 synthesis. New directions in H2 synthesis and nanomaterials for H2 storage have also been discussed. Further, an overview of the H2 value chain is provided at the end, emphasizing the financial implications and outlook for 2050, i.e., carbon-free H2 and zero-emission H2. 

Contemporary avenues of the Hydrogen industry: Opportunities and challenges in the eco-friendly approach.

In terms of the decarbonization of industry, transport, electricity generation, and buildings, the production of green hydrogen plays a major role in the strategy of the European Union and Germany. Therefore, the potential environmental impacts of a greener hydrogen production have been analysed taking the three most important water electrolysis technologies alkaline electrolysis (AEC), polymer electrolyte membrane (PEMEC), and solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) into account. To depict a greener hydrogen production, different energy scenarios of Germany –2019, 2030, 2050, and RE (Renewable Energy)– with an increasing share of wind and solar energy have been considered. The study shows how the potential CO2-eq. of a greener hydrogen production change when applying the different energy scenarios for each technology. On the other hand, the study aims to compare the resulting CO2-eq. with comparative values of conventional and other hydrogen production processes for classification purposes. Moreover, the study compares the CO2-eq. results with comparative values of conventional electricity generation and conventional fuels for cars, assuming that the produced hydrogen is used for electricity generation and as a fuel for cars in order to show CO2 reduction potentials. Besides that, the study compares the Life-Cycle-Impact-Assessment (LCIA) indicators under study to show which technology is potentially the most environmentally friendly one for the respective energy scenario. In summary, it can be stated that the CO2-eq. decrease with an increasing share of wind and solar energy in the energy mix since the share of fossil energies, which are the main drivers of the CO2- eq., decline. Furthermore, the SOEC technology has the lowest CO2-eq. for the energy scenarios in 2019, 2030, and 2050. This applies to the AEC technology for the RE scenario. Regarding the comparative values of conventional and other hydrogen production processes as well as conventional alternatives, only the RE scenario with wind and solar energy provides lower results. Thus, merely the RE scenario is suitable for an environmentally friendly hydrogen production and utilization in order to reduce CO2 emissions. In addition, the SOEC technology causes the lowest potential environmental impacts for the energy scenarios in 2019 and 2030, taking all LCIA indicators into account. This applies to the PEMEC technology for the energy scenario in 2050 and the RE scenario.

Comparative Life-Cycle-Assessment analysis of three major water electrolysis technologies while applying various energy scenarios for a greener hydrogen production

Comparative Life-Cycle Assessment Analysis of Power-to-Methane Plants Including Different Water Electrolysis Technologies and CO2 Sources While Applying Various Energy Scenarios

Levelized and environmental costs of power-to-gas generation in Germany

Economic analysis of hydrogen production in Germany with a focus on green hydrogen production and comparison with alternative processes. 

Economic analysis of hydrogen production in Germany with a focus on green hydrogen, considering all three major water electrolysis technologies

Power-to-Gas technology can play a crucial role in Germany’s energy transition, as it can help decarbonize various sectors. Therefore, this study analyzes the levelized cost of synthetic natural gas production in Germany. For this, different electrolysis technologies, CO2 sources, and scenarios are considered. This study’s objectives are to find out which Power-to-Methane technology causes the lowest levelized cost, how the tremendous change of wholesale electricity prices in 2022 impacted it, and how it changes if an electricity price of 0 €/MW h is assumed. Furthermore, the results are compared with natural gas and biogas prices. Solid oxide electrolyzer cell and biomass as the CO2 source causes the lowest levelized cost. Compared to 2021, the levelized costs have changed significantly in 2022. For example, the values increased by about 54–78% (10 MW) and 65–87% (100 MW). Provided that an electricity price of 0 €/MW h is assumed, the levelized costs decrease by 20–92% (10 MW) and 25–95% (100 MW). Compared to natural gas and biogas prices, only the scenarios with biomass as the CO2 source for 2030 and 2050 are in the range of these values if electricity prices are fully considered. If an electricity price of 0 €/MW h is assumed, all values, apart from a few exceptions, are in the range of the comparative values or below. 

Economic Analysis of Synthetic Natural Gas Production in Germany Considering Different Power-to-Methane Plants

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