Textbook of histology

. This guide to estimating daily and monthly actual, potential, reference crop and pan evaporation covers topics that are of interest to researchers, consulting hydrologists and practicing engineers. Topics include estimating actual evaporation from deep lakes and from farm dams and for catchment water balance studies, estimating potential evaporation as input to rainfall-runoff models, and reference crop evapotranspiration for small irrigation areas, and for irrigation within large irrigation districts. Inspiration for this guide arose in response to the authors' experiences in reviewing research papers and consulting reports where estimation of the actual evaporation component in catchment and water balance studies was often inadequately handled. Practical guides using consistent terminology that cover both theory and practice are not readily available. Here we provide such a guide, which is divided into three parts. The first part provides background theory and an outline of the conceptual models of potential evaporation of Penman, Penman–Monteith and Priestley–Taylor, as well as discussions of reference crop evapotranspiration and Class-A pan evaporation. The last two sub-sections in this first part include techniques to estimate actual evaporation from (i) open-surface water and (ii) landscapes and catchments (Morton and the advection-aridity models). The second part addresses topics confronting a practicing hydrologist, e.g. estimating actual evaporation for deep lakes, shallow lakes and farm dams, lakes covered with vegetation, catchments, irrigation areas and bare soil. The third part addresses six related issues: (i) automatic (hard wired) calculation of evaporation estimates in commercial weather stations, (ii) evaporation estimates without wind data, (iii) at-site meteorological data, (iv) dealing with evaporation in a climate change environment, (v) 24 h versus day-light hour estimation of meteorological variables, and (vi) uncertainty in evaporation estimates. This paper is supported by a Supplement that includes 21 sections enhancing the material in the text, worked examples of many procedures discussed in the paper, a program listing (Fortran 90) of Morton's WREVAP evaporation models along with tables of monthly Class-A pan coefficients for 68 locations across Australia and other information.

/pdf/estimating-actual-potential-reference-crop-and-pan-1efeks7p8q.pdf

Estimating actual, potential, reference crop and pan evaporation using standard meteorological data: a pragmatic synthesis

The use of water quality indices (WQIs) as a tool to evaluate the status of water quality in rivers has been introduced since the 1960s. The WQI transforms selected water quality parameters into a dimensionless number so that changes in river water quality at any particular location and time could be presented in a simple and easily understandable manner. Although many WQIs have been developed, there is no worldwide accepted method for implementing the steps used for developing a WQI. Thus, there is a continuing interest to develop accurate WQIs that suit a local or regional area. This paper aimed to provide significant contribution to the development of future river WQIs through a review of 30 existing WQIs based on the four steps needed to develop a WQI. These steps are the selection of parameters, the generation of sub-indices, the generation of parameter weights and the aggregation process to compute the final index value. From the 30 reviewed WQIs, 7 were identified as most important based on their wider use and they were discussed in detail. It was observed that a major factor that influences wider use of a WQI is the support provided by the government and authorities to implement a WQI as the main tool to evaluate the status of rivers. Since there is a lot of subjectivity and uncertainty involved in the steps for developing and applying a WQI, it is recommended that the opinion of local water quality experts is taken, especially in the first three steps (through techniques like Delphi method). It was also observed that uncertainty and sensitivity analysis was rarely undertaken to reduce uncertainty, and hence such an analysis is recommended for future studies.

/pdf/development-of-river-water-quality-indices-a-review-21n1hpr2bw.pdf

Development of river water quality indices-a review

A state-of the-art survey of FAHP applications is carried out: 190 papers are reviewedPapers are classified based on their: Application area, Theme, Year, Country, etc.Review is summarized in tabular formats/charts to help readers extract quick info.Results and Findings are made available through an online (free) testbedThe testbed makes fuzzy pairwise comparison matrices (from all papers) available As a practical popular methodology for dealing with fuzziness and uncertainty in Multiple Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM), Fuzzy AHP (FAHP) has been applied to a wide range of applications. As of the time of writing there is no state of the art survey of FAHP, we carry out a literature review of 190 application papers (i.e., applied research papers), published between 2004 and 2016, by classifying them on the basis of the area of application, the identified theme, the year of publication, and so forth. The identified themes and application areas have been chosen based upon the latest state-of-the-art survey of AHP conducted by Vaidya, O., & Kumar, S. (2006). Analytic hierarchy process: An overview of applications. European Journal of operational research, 169(1), 1-29.. To help readers extract quick and meaningful information, the reviewed papers are summarized in various tabular formats and charts. Unlike previous literature surveys, results and findings are made available through an online (and free) testbed, which can serve as a ready reference for those who wish to apply, modify or extend FAHP in various applications areas. This online testbed makes also available one or more fuzzy pairwise comparison matrices (FPCMs) from all the reviewed papers (255źmatrices in total).In terms of results and findings, this survey shows that: (i) FAHP is used primarily in the Manufacturing, Industry and Government sectors; (ii) Asia is the torchbearer in this field, where FAHP is mostly applied in the theme areas of Selection and Evaluation; (iii) a significant amount of research papers (43% of the reviewed literature) combine FAHP with other tools, particularly with TOPSIS, QFD and ANP (AHP's variant); (iv) Chang's extent analysis method, which is used for FPCMs' weight derivation in FAHP, is still the most popular method in spite of a number of criticisms in recent years (considered in 57% of the reviewed literature).

https://orbilu.uni.lu/bitstream/10993/28568/1/Uncorrected%20Proof_p1.pdf

A state-of the-art survey & testbed of fuzzy AHP (FAHP) applications

The Kolong River of Nagaon district, Assam has been facing serious degradation leading to its current moribund condition due to a drastic human intervention in the form of an embankment put across it near its take-off point from the Brahmaputra River in the year 1964. The blockage of the river flow was adopted as a flood control measure to protect its riparian areas, especially the Nagaon town, from flood hazard. The river, once a blooming distributary of the mighty Brahmaputra, had high navigability and rich riparian biodiversity with a well established agriculturally productive watershed. However, the present status of Kolong River is highly wretched as a consequence of the post-dam effects thus leaving it as stagnant pools of polluted water with negligible socio-economic and ecological value. The Central Pollution Control Board, in one of its report has placed the Kolong River among 275 most polluted rivers of India. Thus, this study is conducted to analyze the seasonal water quality status of the Kolong River in terms of water quality index (WQI). The WQI scores shows very poor to unsuitable quality of water samples in almost all the seven sampling sites along the Kolong River. The water quality is found to be most deteriorated during monsoon season with an average WQI value of 122.47 as compared to pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season having average WQI value of 85.73 and 80.75, respectively. Out of the seven sampling sites, Hatimura site (S1) and Nagaon Town site (S4) are observed to be the most polluted sites.

/pdf/water-quality-assessment-in-terms-of-water-quality-index-wqi-3qgq0irnpc.pdf

Water quality assessment in terms of water quality index (WQI): case study of the Kolong River, Assam, India

Decision makers face multifaceted challenge in characterizing drought climatology for appropriate water resources-related drought management strategies. This paper focuses on understanding and quantifying the drought vulnerability of Bearma basin in the Bundelkhand region of central India, which is one of the prominent climate extremes that the region is affected by frequently. Regular drought conditions have been prevailing in the region in the last decade with continuous drought from 2004 to 2007. An integrated approach using multiple indicators has been developed to spatially identify the vulnerable regions. The Bearma basin has been selected as a pilot basin to develop a methodology for integrated drought vulnerability assessment adopting spatially and temporally varying drought characteristics represented by drought indicators. The temporally varying indicators include standardized precipitation index (SPI), surface water drought index and groundwater drought index. The spatial information of the indicators was categorized in layers prepared in the spatial domain using a geographic information system, and integrated values of weights of various indicators have been computed on a 50 × 50 m grid scale. The SPI has been applied to quantify monthly precipitation deficit anomalies on multiple time scales (1, 3, 6 and 12 months). The drought characteristics including frequency, duration and intensity and magnitude have been calculated with the estimated SPI. The multiple indicator approach has been used for arriving at the drought vulnerable zones. The highly vulnerable areas are located in the southern and northern regions of the Bearma basin. It has been observed that more than 26 % of the basin lies in the highly and critically vulnerable classes and consequently has greater drought-related negative impacts. Results show that the proposed method is highly effective in representing assessments of drought vulnerability.

Drought indicators-based integrated assessment of drought vulnerability: a case study of Bundelkhand droughts in central India

Agriculture is a major sector in India which contributes around 14% of country's gross domestic product (GDP). Being an agriculture-based country, good quality of water for irrigation has been a prime requisite. Highly growing population and accelerated industrial development are causing anthropogenic pollution to both surface and groundwater on one side and geogenic contamination like arsenic, fluoride, high dissolved solids, sodicity, and iron in groundwater on other side. As a result, ensuring safe water quality for the irrigation has become a major challenge to both the central and state governments. The present irrigation water quality standards being followed in India have been set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) in the year 2000. These standards are solely based on four parameters, namely electrical conductivity, sodium percentage, sodium absorption ratio, and residual sodium carbonate, which are quite subjective and many times are not capable to exactly decide the quality of irrigation water particularly when there are large variations in the source water quality. Therefore, in the present paper, an indices-based approach is presented for categorization of irrigation water quality. These indices are mathematical equations that transform water quality data into a numeric value, which describes the quality of irrigation water. The proposed irrigation water quality index (IWQI), which is based on 12 parameters, classifies the water into five categories, viz. excellent, good, medium, bad, and very bad in the same manner as given by the CPCB and CGWB. In order to give proper rating to various parameters of the index, weights are computed using Saaty's analytic hierarchy process (AHP)-based multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approach. This approach minimizes the subjectivity in assessment of weights and improves understanding of water quality issues by generating an overall index to describe the status of water quality. The proposed index will be beneficial for the water management authorities in ensuring safe water to the stakeholders.

Index-based assessment of suitability of water quality for irrigation purpose under Indian conditions

Evaluating performances of four commonly used evaporation estimate methods, namely; Bowen ratio energy balance (BREB), mass transfer (MT), Priestley–Taylor (PT) and pan evaporation (PE), based on 4 years experimental data, the most effective and the reliable evaporation estimates model for the semi-arid region of India has been derived. The various goodness-of-fit measures, such as; coefficient of determination (R2), index of agreement (D), root mean square error (RMSE), and relative bias (RB) have been chosen for the performance evaluation. Of these models, the PT model has been found most promising when the Bowen ratio, β is known a priori, and based on its limited data requirement. The responses of the BREB, the PT, and the PE models were found comparable to each other, while the response of the MT model differed to match with the responses of the other three models. The coefficients, β of the BREB, µ of the MT, α of the PT and KP of the PE model were estimated as 0·07, 2·35, 1·31 and 0·65, respectively. The PT model can successfully be extended for free water surface evaporation estimates in semi-arid India.



A linear regression model depicting relationship between daily air and water temperature has been developed using the observed water temperatures and the corresponding air temperatures. The model helped to generate unrecorded water temperatures for the corresponding ambient air temperatures. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evaluating best evaporation estimate model for water surface evaporation in semi-arid region, India

The normalized antecedent precipitation index (NAPI) model by Heggen for the prediction of runoff yield is analytically derived from the water balance equation. Heggen's model has been simplified further to a rational form and its performance verified with the Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) model. The simplified model has three coefficients specific to a watershed, and requires two inputs: rainfall and the derived parameter, NAPI. The characteristic behaviour of the NAPI has resonance with the curve number (CN) of the SCS model. The proposed NAPI model was applied to three watersheds in the semi-arid region of India to simulate runoff yield. The model showed improved correlation between the observed and predicted runoff data compared to the SCS-CN model. The F test and paired t test also confirmed the reliability of the model with significance levels of 0.01 and 0.001%, respectively. The proposed model could be used successfully for rainfall–runoff modelling in a watershed. Citat...

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02626660903546175

Rainfall–runoff simulation using a normalized antecedent precipitation index

Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) for Watershed Prioritization

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