Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

Understanding the negative and positive effects of agricultural land use for the conservation of biodiversity, and its relation to ecosystem services, needs a landscape perspective. Agriculture can contribute to the conservation of high-diversity systems, which may provide important ecosystem services such as pollination and biological control via complementarity and sampling effects. Land-use management is often focused on few species and local processes, but in dynamic, agricultural landscapes, only a diversity of insurance species may guarantee resilience (the capacity to reorganize after disturbance). Interacting species experience their surrounding landscape at different spatial scales, which influences trophic interactions. Structurally complex landscapes enhance local diversity in agroecosystems, which may compensate for local high-intensity management. Organisms with high-dispersal abilities appear to drive these biodiversity patterns and ecosystem services, because of their recolonization ability and larger resources experienced. Agri-environment schemes (incentives for farmers to benefit the environment) need to broaden their perspective and to take the different responses to schemes in simple (high impact) and complex (low impact) agricultural landscapes into account. In simple landscapes, local allocation of habitat is more important than in complex landscapes, which are in total at risk. However, little knowledge of the relative importance of local and landscape management for biodiversity and its relation to ecosystem services make reliable recommendations difficult.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00782.x

Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity – ecosystem service management

I. CONTEXT * The Ecosystem Concept * Earth's Climate System * Geology and Soils * II. MECHANISMS * Terrestrial Water and Energy Balance * Carbon Input to Terrestrial Ecosystems * Terrestrial Production Processes * Terrestrial Decomposition * Terrestrial Plant Nutrient Use * Terrestrial Nutrient Cycling * Aquatic Carbon and Nutrient Cycling * Trophic Dynamics * Community Effects on Ecosystem Processes * III. PATTERNS * Temporal Dynamics * Landscape Heterogeneity and Ecosystem Dynamics * IV. INTEGRATION * Global Biogeochemical Cycles * Managing and Sustaining Ecosystem * Abbreviations * Glossary * References

Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology

A citizen scientist is a volunteer who collects and/or processes data as part of a scientific enquiry. Projects that involve citizen scientists are burgeoning, particularly in ecology and the environmental sciences, although the roots of citizen science go back to the very beginnings of modern science itself.

A new dawn for citizen science.

Articles R emote sensing has facilitated extraordinary advances in the modeling, mapping, and understanding of ecosystems. Typical applications of remote sensing involve either images from passive optical systems, such as aerial photography and Landsat Thematic Mapper (Goward and Williams 1997), or to a lesser degree, active radar sensors such as RADARSAT (Waring et al. 1995). These types of sensors have proven to be satisfactory for many ecological applications , such as mapping land cover into broad classes and, in some biomes, estimating aboveground biomass and leaf area index (LAI). Moreover, they enable researchers to analyze the spatial pattern of these images. However, conventional sensors have significant limitations for ecological applications. The sensitivity and accuracy of these devices have repeatedly been shown to fall with increasing aboveground biomass and leaf area index (Waring et al. 1995, Carlson and Ripley 1997, Turner et al. 1999). They are also limited in their ability to represent spatial patterns: They produce only two-dimensional (x and y) images, which cannot fully represent the three-dimensional structure of, for instance, an old-growth forest canopy.Yet ecologists have long understood that the presence of specific organisms, and the overall richness of wildlife communities, can be highly dependent on the three-dimensional spatial pattern of vegetation (MacArthur and MacArthur 1961), especially in systems where biomass accumulation is significant (Hansen and Rotella 2000). Individual bird species, in particular, are often associated with specific three-dimensional features in forests (Carey et al. 1991). In addition, other functional aspects of forests, such as productivity, may be related to forest canopy structure. Laser altimetry, or lidar (light detection and ranging), is an alternative remote sensing technology that promises to both increase the accuracy of biophysical measurements and extend spatial analysis into the third (z) dimension. Lidar sensors directly measure the three-dimensional distribution of plant canopies as well as subcanopy topography, thus providing high-resolution topographic maps and highly accurate estimates of vegetation height, cover, and canopy structure. In addition , lidar has been shown to accurately estimate LAI and aboveground biomass even in those high-biomass ecosystems where passive optical and active radar sensors typically fail to do so. The basic measurement made by a lidar device is the distance between the sensor and a target surface, obtained by determining the elapsed time between the emission of a short-duration laser pulse and the arrival of the reflection of that pulse (the return signal) at the sensor's receiver. Multiplying this …

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052%5B0019:LRSFES%5D2.0.CO;2

Lidar Remote Sensing for Ecosystem Studies

We describe the abundance (dry weight) of angiosperms and other organic matter suspended within the inner crowns of a dominant host tree species, Ocotea tonduzii (Lauraceae) in a Neotropical lower montane forest. Epiphytic organic matter (EOM), defined as vegetation and dead organic matter, was randomly sampled from inner canopy branches of ten trees in Monteverde, Costa Rica. Total EOM (grams per square decimeter of branch surface area) showed a strong positive correlation with branch circumference and a strong negative correlation with branch angle. Approximately three times more dry mass occurred on large (86-140 centimeters circumference) branches than on small (15-50 centimeters) branches, and four times more dry mass occurred on less inclined (' 300) than on more inclined (>60?) branches. The variation of EOM was much greater within trees (between branches) than among different trees. EOM was composed of approximately 60 percent dead organic matter, 20 percent live and dead roots, 10 percent angiosperms, 5 percent ferns, and 5 percent cryptogams. Sixty-five angiosperm species in 18 families, with no strongly dominant species, were found among the 75 percent of plots that supported angiosperms. Araceae, Bromeliaceae, Ericaceae, Melastomataceae, and Orchidaceae contributed about 70 percent of the angiosperm biomass. Orchidaceae and Piperaceae were the most frequently represented families and those with the most species in the study plots. The most species-rich plots (-6 species) occurred on branches >50 centimeters in circumference, but the highest density of epiphytic angiosperm seedlings occurred on smaller, presumably younger branches.

Composition and distribution of epiphytic organic matter in a Neotropical cloud forest, Costa Rica

http://sourcedb.xtbg.cas.cn/yw/ywlw/201209/P020120917501974439884.pdf

Response of non-vascular epiphytes to simulated climate change in a montane moist evergreen broad-leaved forest in southwest China

The forest canopy harbors a diverse assemblage of plants of many different growth habits. The reproductive parts of tall trees, many epiphytes, and lianas may exist only in the upper canopy. Access to these upper regions is essential to identify canopy plants and to collect and document voucher specimens for a particular forest region. The majority of botanists, however, have relied on collecting techniques that are opportunistic (i.e., "reach and grab") rather than on methodically conducting more comprehensive samples of forest composition. Reproductive parts (essential materials for proper identification and botanical study) and leaves from the upper canopy (whose physical and physiological structure may differ strikingly between the canopy and understory) are not accurately represented in herbaria because collection of these specimens has historically posed an insurmountable challenge. This limits our ability to classify forest plants and our understanding of their taxonomy and ecology. Why collect plant material from the canopy when it is more easily ob-

The collection and preservation of plant material from the tropical forest canopy.

Epiphytes are a common component of neotropical forests, but their importance to birds at the community level and their role in contributing to tropical bird diversity has only rarely been considered. Literature accounts from 55 studies document 193 species of neotropical birds that take nectar, fruits, invertebrates, water, and nesting materials from epiphytes. To quantify the amounts and types of resources provided by epiphytes compared to host trees, we watched birds in 14 forest and pasture sites (1,350-1,420 m) for 2 months in a lower montane landscape of Costa Rica. During our 289 hr of observations from within the canopy and on the ground, 33 of 56 bird species observed in foraging visits foraged in resources provided by epiphytes. Epiphyte resources were involved in 32% of all foraging visits. For eight bird species, 40% or more of all foraging visits involved epiphyte use, which included foraging for fruits, nectar, invertebrates, water, and nesting materials. Six types of bird foraging behaviors in six types of epiphytes are described and compared to bird use of tree resources. Some birds appeared to specialize on particular epiphyte resources such as invertebrates in crown humus. The frequent epiphyte use by a large number of bird species indicates that epiphytes constitute a resource that has generally been overlooked in past bird community studies. We discuss two ways that epiphytes may contribute to high tropical bird species diversity.

Bird use of epiphyte resources in neotropical trees

Symposium on the Tropical Rain Forest

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