Scaffold-based bone tissue engineering aims to repair/regenerate bone defects. Such a treatment concept involves seeding autologous osteogenic cells throughout a biodegradable scaffold to create a scaffold-cell hybrid that may be called a tissue-engineered construct (TEC). A variety of materials and scaffolding fabrication techniques for bone tissue engineering have been investigated over the past two decades. This review aims to discuss the advances in bone engineering from a scaffold material point of view. In the first part the reader is introduced to the basic principles of bone engineering. The important properties of the biomaterials and the scaffold design in the making of tissue engineered bone constructs are discussed in detail, with special emphasis placed on the new material developments, namely composites made of synthetic polymers and calcium phosphates. Advantages and limitations of these materials are analysed along with various architectural parameters of scaffolds important for bone tissue engineering, e.g. porosity, pore size, interconnectivity and pore-wall microstructures.

State of the art and future directions of scaffold-based bone engineering from a biomaterials perspective.

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)/hydroxyapatite composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

https://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/j.gough/lectures/te/5_3dtiss/Angio/deg_angiogen.pdf

The effect of scaffold degradation rate on three-dimensional cell growth and angiogenesis.

https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/3992/1/0074.pdf

Bioinert, biodegradable and injectable polymeric matrix composites for hard tissue replacement: state of the art and recent developments

Biomaterials and tissue engineering are rapidly expanding fields for research and also commercial exploitation. A greater understanding of the interaction of materials with cells has allowed implant materials to be designed with the aim of promoting a specific biological response. Phosphate-based glasses are a unique group of materials that offer great potential for hard and soft tissue engineering. The move from passive inert implant materials to active degradable materials indicates that phosphate glasses may have a role in tissue engineering. Whilst significant work has been carried out to elucidate the structure of these materials, there is a paucity of data to correlate this information with the physical properties such as dissolution rate. This paper details some of the basic properties of these materials and how these may be exploited in the design of a biomaterial. Also a review of some of the current and potential clinical uses for these materials is included.

Phosphate based glasses for biomedical applications

Biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite (HA) composites have potential application as bone graft substitutes. Thin films of polymer/HA composites were produced, and the initial attachment of primary human osteoblasts (HOBs) was assessed to investigate the biocompatibility of the materials. Poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(L-lactic acid) (PLA) were used as matrix materials for two types of HA particles, 50-microm sintered and submicron nonsintered. Using ESEM, cell morphology on the surfaces of samples was investigated after 90 min, 4 h, and 24 h of cell culture. Cell activity and viability were assessed after 24 h of cell culture using Alamar blue and DNA assays. Surface morphology of the polymer/HA composites and HA exposure were investigated using ESEM and EDXA, respectively. ESEM enabled investigation of both cell and material surface morphology in the hydrated condition. Combined with EDXA it permitted chemical and visual examination of the composite. Differences in HA exposure were observed on the different composite surfaces that affected the morphology of attached cells. In the first 4 h of cell culture, the cells were spread to a higher degree on exposed HA regions of the composites and on PLA than they were on PCL. After 24 h the cells were spread equally on all the samples. The cell activity after 24 h was significantly higher on the polymer/HA composites than on the polymer films. There was no significant difference in the activity of the cells on the various composite materials. However, cells on PCL showed higher activity compared to those on PLA. A polymer surface exhibiting "point exposure" of HA appeared to provide a novel and favorable substrate for primary cell attachment. The cell morphology and activity results indicate a favorable cell/material interaction and suggest that PLA and PCL and their composites with HA may be candidate materials for the reconstruction of bony tissue. Further investigations regarding long-term biomaterial/cell interactions and the effects of acidic degradation products from the biodegradable polymers are required to confirm their utility.

Biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite composites: Surface analysis and initial attachment of human osteoblasts

Biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite (HA) composites have potential application as bone graft substitutes. Thin films of polymer/HA composites were produced, and the initial attachment of primary human osteoblasts (HOBs) was assessed to investigate the biocompatibility of the materials. Poly(-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(L-lactic acid) (PLA) were used as matrix materials for two types of HA particles, 50-m sintered and submicron nonsintered. Using ESEM, cell morphology on the surfaces of samples was investigated after 90 min, 4 h, and 24 h of cell culture. Cell activity and viability were assessed after 24 h of cell culture using Alamar blue and DNA assays. Surface morphology of the polymer/HA composites and HA exposure were investigated using ESEM and EDXA, respectively. ESEM enabled investigation of both cell and material surface morphology in the hydrated condition. Combined with EDXA it permitted chemical and visual examination of the composite. Differences in HA exposure were observed on the different composite surfaces that affected the morphology of attached cells. In the first 4 h of cell culture, the cells were spread to a higher degree on exposed HA regions of the composites and on PLA than they were on PCL. After 24 h the cells were spread equally on all the samples. The cell activity after 24 h was significantly higher on the polymer/HA composites than on the polymer films. There was no significant difference in the activity of the cells on the various composite materials. However, cells on PCL showed higher activity compared to those on PLA. A polymer surface exhibiting point exposure of HA appeared to provide a novel and favorable substrate for primary cell attachment. The cell morphology and activity results indicate a favorable cell/material interaction and suggest that PLA and PCL and their composites with HA may be candidate materials for the reconstruction of bony tissue. Further investigations regarding long-term biomaterial/cell interactions and the effects of acidic degradation products from the biodegradable polymers are required to confirm their utility. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res 55: 475-486, 2001

Biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite composites : surface analysis and initial attachment of human osteoblasts

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Biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite composites: Surface analysis and initial attachment of human osteoblasts

Biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite composites : surface analysis and initial attachment of human osteoblasts