Since their heterotrophic origin, animals have been faced with a continual input of foreign compounds, so-called xenobiotics, from their food sources, e.g. polybromomethanes and alkyl halides in seaweeds (Gschwend et al. 1985) and defensive toxins in other animals (Bakus and Kawaguchi 1984); and from the attacks of predators, e.g. venoms of certain gastropods and cephalopods (Fange 1984). For example, “animal-plant warfare” is considered to be a major selective pressure in driving the evolution of some of the gene families of the biotransformation enzyme, cytochrome P-450 (Nebert et al. 1989b). Over time, additional sources of xenobiotics have included erosion of hydrocarbon-containing shales, and oil seepage from natural reservoirs (started at least 100,000 years ago) (Farrington 1985), hostile environments such as the high sulphide levels around deep sea hydrothermal vents (Vetter et al. 1987), and, in more recent years, man’s multifarious industrial and other activities (Mix 1984). Central to the defense against such an enormous and diverse number of potentially toxic compounds is an impressive array of enzymes, which function ideally to detoxify and eliminate xenobiotics from an organism. The biological significance of biotransformation enzymes is increased by the inducibility of some of them by xenobiotics, and by their metabolism of certain xenobiotics to molecular species more toxic, mutagenic or carcinogenic than the parent compound. Elaboration of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of organic xenobiotic metabolism in marine invertebrates, and the function and regulation of the enzymes involved, is important for several reasons, viz. predicting and modelling the fate and toxicity of xenobiotics in marine organisms and ecosystems (e.g. Harris et al. 1984); development of specific indices of biological effect for use in pollution monitoring and impact assessment (e.g. Malins et al. 1985; Kleinow et al. 1987; Payne et al. 1987; Bayne et al. 1988); and understanding the evolutionary relationships of the biotransformation pathways in different phylogenetic groups, and the use of the pathways in invading, or exploiting, ecological time and space to create new niches.

Organic Xenobiotic Metabolism in Marine Invertebrates

Damage to blood cell lysosomes was investigated in vitro in mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis collected from a series of sites in the Lagoon of Venice, Italy, and correlated with total tissue burdens for a range of contaminants. Retention of the cationic probe neutral red within the lysosomal compartment over time was used as a measure of damage to the lysosomal membrane. Multi-stepwise regression analysis was used to explore the relationship between altered cellular physiology and total body burdens of contaminants. Organochlorines (DDT, HCH and Aroclor 1254), mercury and cobalt were the principle factors involved in evoking pathological responses.

https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/129/m129p189.pdf

Contaminant-induced lysosomal membrane damage in blood cells of mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis from the Venice Lagoon: an in vitro study

Structural and functional properties of hydration and confined water in membrane interfaces

The different approaches in which self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have been applied in electroanalytical chemistry are reviewed. Three principal concepts have been used and can be categorized according to the mechanism of attachment of the monolayer to the electrode. These include the formation of covalent bonds between reactive organic molecules, such as chlorosilanes, with activated surfaces, the formation of lipid and bilayer lipid membranes that self-assemble on conductive surfaces and the adsorption of functionalized alkanes, e.g., alkanethiols, on well ordered surfaces. Systems for detecting inorganic, organic and biological species are described and conclusions are drawn.

Applications of self-assembled monolayers in electroanalytical chemistry

The intrinsic pka values for phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylserine in monolayers deposited on mercury electrodes

Phospholipid monolayers of di-oleoyl lecithin at the mercury/water interface

Phospholipid monolayers of di-oleoyl lecithin (di-O-PC) at the mercury/water interface: Effects on faradaic reactions

Initial applications of phospholipid-coated mercury electrodes to the determination of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and other organic micropollutants in aqueous systems

Interaction Of Xenobiotics With Mercury-Adsorbed Phospholipid Monolayers

Interaction of hydrophobic organic compounds with mercury adsorbed dioleoylphosphatidylcholine monolayers.

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