The unavailability of clean drinking water is one of the significant health issues in modern times. Industrial dyes are one of the dominant chemicals that make water unfit for drinking. Among these dyes, methylene blue (MB) is toxic, carcinogenic, and non-biodegradable and can cause a severe threat to human health and environmental safety. It is usually released in natural water sources, which becomes a health threat to human beings and living organisms. Hence, there is a need to develop an environmentally friendly, efficient technology for removing MB from wastewater. Photodegradation is an advanced oxidation process widely used for MB removal. It has the advantages of complete mineralization of dye into simple and nontoxic species with the potential to decrease the processing cost. This review provides a tutorial basis for the readers working in the dye degradation research area. We not only covered the basic principles of the process but also provided a wide range of previously published work on advanced photocatalytic systems (single-component and multi-component photocatalysts). Our study has focused on critical parameters that can affect the photodegradation rate of MB, such as photocatalyst type and loading, irradiation reaction time, pH of reaction media, initial concentration of dye, radical scavengers and oxidising agents. The photodegradation mechanism, reaction pathways, intermediate products, and final products of MB are also summarized. An overview of the future perspectives to utilize MB at an industrial scale is also provided. This paper identifies strategies for the development of effective MB photodegradation systems.

https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/2/242/pdf?version=1642404093

Review on Methylene Blue: Its Properties, Uses, Toxicity and Photodegradation

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are emerging catalyst materials with inner layer water molecules and higher anion exchange capacity. They have been extensively used as catalyst materials owing to their high specific surface area, environmental friendliness, lower cost, and non-toxicity. However, the lower surface area and leaching of metal ions from LDHs composites reduce the process efficiency of the catalyst. Modifying the LDHs materials with other materials can improve the surface properties of the composite and enhance the catalytic performance. Herein, this review aims to summarize the recent progress of nanostructured modified LDHs materials, their classification, synthesis, and a detailed discussion on their characterization techniques. Further, this study also discusses the application of nanostructured modified LDHs materials as catalysts in advanced oxidation process (AOPs) for various organic pollutants removal. 

Nanostructured modified layered double hydroxides (LDHs)-based catalysts: A review on synthesis, characterization, and applications in water remediation by advanced oxidation processes

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are emerging catalyst materials with inner layer water molecules and higher anion exchange capacity. They have been extensively used as catalyst materials owing to their high specific surface area, environmental friendliness, lower cost, and non-toxicity. However, the lower surface area and leaching of metal ions from LDHs composites reduce the process efficiency of the catalyst. Modifying the LDHs materials with other materials can improve the surface properties of the composite and enhance the catalytic performance. Herein, this review aims to summarize the recent progress of nanostructured modified LDHs materials, their classification, synthesis, and a detailed discussion on their characterization techniques. Further, this study also discusses the application of nanostructured modified LDHs materials as catalysts in advanced oxidation process (AOPs) for various organic pollutants removal.

Carbon-based nanocomposites for the elimination of inorganic and organic pollutants through sorption and catalysis strategies

Thin layers of pure Fe2O3 and modified by polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) were synthesized by sol gel route. The morphology of Fe2O3 was modified by the creation of pores by evaporating the Polyvinyl alcohol at 550 °C. This modified structure improved the removal rate of methylene blue (MB) dye aqueous solution under visible irradiation in 10%. The effect of sensitization ratio of NiO nanoparticles onto Fe2O3/PVA (porous) showed very good degradation efficiency up to 100%. Characterization of Fe2O3, Fe2O3 modified by PVA (Fe2O3/PVA), Fe2O3/PVA/NiO have been used such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), FT-IR, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV–Vis … etc. The kinetic parameters of MB elimination by Fe2O3, Fe2O3/PVA and Fe2O3/PVA/NiO were calculated using linear models such as pseudo-first order (PFO), pseudo-second order (PSO) and Elovich. Four error functions were used namely, correlation coefficients (R2), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Square Error (MSE) and Sum Squares Error (SSE), to better fit the kinetic equation. The MB elimination mechanism has been studied based on the intra-particle diffusion equation. The effect of pH on the MB removal rate by the two most active catalysts, Fe2O3/PVA and Fe2O3/PVA/with 1%wt. NiO nanoparticles, as well as the pHPZC point were evaluated. 

High-performance photocatalytic degradation of NiO nanoparticles embedded on α-Fe2O3 nanoporous layers under visible light irradiation

To overcome the drawbacks of pure g-C3N4 in photocatalysis, namely insufficient light absorption and fast recombination of its photogenerated charges, g-C3N4-based nanocomposites were investigated. In detail, this study focuses on a novel route by which carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) might be inserted into the structure of g-C3N4 to form hybrid materials that possess great surface area with high photocatalytic and adsorption properties. The g-C3N4/CNMs composites with high photo-activity were obtained via a one-pot synthesis using urea and green tea leaves as cheap and renewable materials. After exfoliation, porous nanosheets with a surface area of about 128 m2 g−1, providing more active sites for both adsorption and efficient photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue, were obtained. The green tea leaves seem to act as a templating agent that control the morphology, growth, and final structure of the composite. From the first-order kinetic model, the reaction rate constant for the nanosheets g-C3N4/CNMs was determined to be kapp =4.7 min−1, which was approximately more than twice that of pure nanosheets g-C3N4 (kapp = 2.0 min−1). Besides, the g-C3N4/CNMs nanocomposite shows an accurate reusability and stability as compared to g-C3N4.

Urea and green tea like precursors for the preparation of g-C3N4 based carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) composites as photocatalysts for photodegradation of pollutants under UV light irradiation

In this work, we have proposed a new approach to study the mechanism of crystal violet (CV) photodegradation on TiO2 surface using kinetic Monte Carlo simulation. The TiO2 surface was considered as a set of reactive centers, which is essential in dye photodegradation. A new variable "the effective photon concentration" (Ieff ) is defined. A detailed chemical understanding of the photocatalytic reaction is provided. This approach provides a simple and effective method to find the optimal conditions of the studied system. This goal was achieved by investigating the effects of some operational parameters, including initial concentration of CV, pH, loading TiO2 , light intensity and volume, on the degradation percent, and also, on the effective photon concentration. The perfect agreements between the experimental and simulated data at different conditions confirmed the proposed approach for describing the CV photodestruction. Also, the simulation results indicated that: (1) a significant fraction of the scattered UV irradiation into the reaction vessel does not lead to charge carrier generation; (2) the generation and recombination of charge carriers have crucial roles in the photodegradation. This is the first time that a method based on the reactive centers is employed to investigate the dye degradation by a photocatalyst.

Introduction of the Effective Photon Concentration Variable for Studying the Mechanism of Crystal Violet Photodegradation.

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Urea and green tea like precursors for the preparation of g-C3N4 based carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) composites as photocatalysts for photodegradation of pollutants under UV light irradiation

Introduction of the Effective Photon Concentration Variable for Studying the Mechanism of Crystal Violet Photodegradation.