This is the first of a series of papers that review the state of knowledge and practice regarding compensation and rewards for environmental services in the developing world The paper begins with an assessment of the historical development of compensation and reward mechanisms within a broader context of changing approaches to nature conservation and environmental policy The assessment shows that greater interest in compensation and reward mechanisms has emerged within a policy context of changing approaches to nature conservation and flexible multi-stakeholder approaches to environmental management In the developing world, an even greater variety of perspectives has emerged on the opportunities and threats for using compensation and rewards for environmental services Within that background, the paper clarifies key concepts—including the distinction between compensation and reward —and presents a conceptual framework for typifying and characterizing different types of mechanisms that link ecosystem stewards, ecosystem service beneficiaries, and intermediaries

/pdf/compensation-and-rewards-for-environmental-services-in-the-3oe1r3xcme.pdf

Compensation and Rewards for Environmental Services in the Developing World: Framing Pan-Tropical Analysis and Comparison

To examine management options for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes, eight research regions were classified into social-ecological domains, using a dataset of indicators of livelihood resources, i.e., capital assets. Potential interventions for biodiversity-based agriculture were then compared among landscapes and domains. The approach combined literature review with expert judgment by researchers working in each landscape. Each landscape was described for land use, rural livelihoods and attitudes of social actors toward biodiversity and intensification of agriculture. Principal components analysis of 40 indicators of natural, human, social, financial and physical capital for the eight landscapes showed a loss of biodiversity associated with high-input agricultural intensification. High levels of natural capital (e.g. indicators of wildland biodiversity conservation and agrobiodiversity for human needs) were positively associated with indicators of human capital, including knowledge of the flora and fauna and knowledge sharing among farmers. Three social-ecological domains were identified across the eight landscapes (Tropical Agriculture-Forest Matrix, Tropical Degrading Agroecosystem, and Temperate High-Input Commodity Agriculture) using hierarchical clustering of the indicator values. Each domain shared a set of interventions for biodiversity-based agriculture and ecological intensification that could also increase food security in the impoverished landscapes. Implementation of interventions differed greatly among the landscapes, e.g. financial capital for new farming practices in the Intensive Agriculture domain vs. developing market value chains in the other domains. This exploratory study suggests that indicators of knowledge systems should receive greater emphasis in the monitoring of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and that inventories of assets at the landscape level can inform adaptive management of agrobiodiversity-based interventions.

/pdf/social-ecological-and-regional-adaptation-of-31yct36ywi.pdf

Social-ecological and regional adaptation of agrobiodiversity management across a global set of research regions

Life after Logging: Reconciling Wildlife Conservation and Production Forestry in Indonesian Borneo

Although charcoal meets 80% of urban households’ energy needs in eastern Africa, it hardly attracts the attention of policy makers. Yet charcoal will remain the main cooking fuel for most people in the region’s towns for the foreseeable future because it is affordable. As demand for charcoal increases with rapid urbanisation, so does pressure on forests and woodlands, most of which are poorly managed and prone to degradation. Matters are made worse because there are no incentives for investment in planned charcoal production. Consequently, the current charcoal business is unsustainable and has a negative image. Banning the making and transportation of charcoal in some countries has largely been unsuccessful in regulating its production and trade. There is need to look for alternative ways of dealing with charcoal issues. Over the past few years, the Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA) has conducted a series of workshops to discuss charcoal trade in the region. From the discussions, it was clear that contradictory directives and weak laws are to blame for the confusion in the charcoal business in eastern Africa. Apart from Sudan and Kenya, the other countries are yet to formulate policies or enact laws to promote sustainable charcoal production and use. While Sudan has a regulatory system of planting and harvesting trees for charcoal production, the other countries neither plant trees nor give land owners incentives to do so. Instead, they are preoccupied with policing exploitation of existing stocks of wood. Other obstacles to streamlining charcoal trade include inefficient production methods, poor marketing and its semi-illegal status. What must be done? It is vital to create the right climate for profitable and sustainable charcoal production. This can be done by formulating sound policies and enacting appropriate laws. Regulation of charcoal production, distribution and marketing should be assigned to a single authority that would be accountable for all issues relating to the industry. Finally, there should be shortand long-term plans for tree planting by smallholders and the private sector. With the right climate, charcoal trade can be turned round to provide employment and protect the environment it now threatens.

Lessons from eastern Africa’s unsustainable charcoal business

This study assesses the production and marketing of Leucaena leucocephala leaf meal in the Tanga area of Tanzania, the only location in sub-Saharan Africa where leaf meal is widely marketed. Among the 5400 dairy farmers in the Tanga area, about 61%, 3290, use leaf meal to feed their stall-fed dairy cows or chickens. The other main actors in the market chain are producers, who gather leucaena leaves from the wild or from their farms and dry and crush them into leaf meal, and traders, who buy leaf meal and transport it to the mostly urban and peri-urban consumers. Following a rapid reconnaissance survey, questionnaire surveys were conducted with 28 consumers, 11 traders, and 10 producers. Leaf meal is a key component of dairy rations, as it provides crude digestible protein and metabolic energy at low cost. Retail prices fluctuate considerably, primarily because supplies are reduced during the rainy season, when it is difficult to dry leaf meal and when many producers prefer to work on their farms. Marketing leaf meal is highly competitive, there are few barriers to entry, and returns appear to be relatively low. Proposals for expanding the industry and improving the livelihoods of producers, who are mostly poor women, and traders, who are mainly poor men, focus on improved technologies (improved drying and compressing techniques), institutional innovations (trader associations and expanded price information), and improved policies and extension strategies (exchanging information with Asian leaf meal producers and developing a cross-sectoral advocacy group to mobilize resources and support system improvements).

Production and marketing of leaf meal from fodder shrubs in Tanga, Tanzania. A pro-poor enterprise for improving livestock productivity.

The Future Harvest agricultural research centres of the consultative group on international agricultural research (CGIAR) interact with (agro)biodiversity in many, if not all of their priorities and subpriorities. We here focus on the research and development activities targeting forests and trees, and use examples from the Sumatra (Indonesia) benchmark to highlight four current initiatives in partnership with research and development agencies: - the global DIVERSITAS Agrobiodiversity workplan and our links with the three main domains in the biodiversity/productivity tradeoff that it recognizes, - the CIFOR-ICRAF Biodiversity Platform that is focused on the conservation + use opportunities in dynamic landscape mosaics, - the CI – ICRAF partnership “Enhancement of Conservation Landscapes through Agroforestry Science and Technology”, - the RUPES (Rewarding Upland Poor for the Environmental Services they provide) program in Southeast Asia, - the Sustainable Management of Below Ground Biodiversity (BGBD) project. Agroforests with rubber or coffee as main exotic tree crop, but abundant presence of the indigenous flora and fauna can provide a biodiversity-friendly alternative to the dominant development paradigm that is still based on monocultural plantations.

/pdf/agro-biodiversity-and-cgiar-tree-and-forest-science-1h79rxrn7l.pdf

Agro)biodiversity and CGIAR tree and forest science

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Agro)biodiversity and CGIAR tree and forest science