Antibiotic pollution is a major health issue inducing antibiotic resistance and the inefficiency of actual drugs, thus calling for improved methods to clean water and wastewater. Here we review the recent development of heterojunction photocatalysis and application in degrading tetracycline. We discuss mechanisms for separating photogenerated electron-hole pairs in different heterojunction systems such as traditional, p-n, direct Z-scheme, step-scheme, Schottky, and surface heterojunction. Degradation pathways of tetracycline during photocatalysis are presented. We compare the efficiency of tetracycline removal by various heterojunctions using quantum efficiency, space time yield, and figures of merit. Implications for the treatment of antibiotic-contaminated wastewater are discussed.

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Heterojunction photocatalysts for degradation of the tetracycline antibiotic: a review

Environmental pollution and global energy demand require advanced photocatalytic materials such as visible-light-driven semiconductor photocatalysts. In particular, Tungsten oxide (WO3) appears promising candidate because of high absorption of visible light (up to 480 nm), its tunable bandgap, and outstanding optical properties. Fascinatingly, WO3 also hold advantages like nontoxic nature, economic cost, and stability in oxidative and acidic conditions. It is well-known that various synthetic procedures can be utilized for fabrication of a photocatalyst with different morphologies, sizes and structures which are dynamic on its catalytic performance to distinctive degrees. This review comprises several synthesis ways which are low-cost and environmentally friendly and detail analysis of the relationship between morphology control and photocatalytic performance of WO3. Additionally, some top strategies for enhancing the photocatalytic performance of semiconductor WO3, like as elemental doping, hybridization with co-catalyst, heterojunction formation etc. are also summarized. Moreover, photocatalytic enhancement aspects and photocatalytic mechanisms of WO3/semiconductor photocatalyst were elaborated. Lastly, the conclusion and main future prospects of WO3-based semiconductor photocatalysts were deliberated.

An overview on WO3 based photocatalyst for environmental remediation

Harvesting solar energy for energy and environmental applications is an ever-fascinating field of research. Although semiconductor photocatalysis is the potential tool for recalcitrant degradation, it still suffers from rapid recombination, inability to utilize visible light, and lower photocatalytic performance. Recently, the Z-scheme photocatalysts are becoming research hotspots for their strong redox ability, charge carrier separation, and ability to exploit visible light. This review provides insights into the fundamental mechanism, synthesis strategies, and characterization techniques of Z-scheme photocatalysts. The recent advancements in their applications in visible-light-driven pollutants degradation are also reviewed.

Z-scheme photocatalysts for visible-light-driven pollutants degradation: A review on recent advancements

Novel Z-scheme In2S3/Bi2WO6 core-shell heterojunctions with synergistic enhanced photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline hydrochloride

Construction of multifunctional dual Z-scheme composites with enhanced photocatalytic activities for degradation of ciprofloxacin

Fabrication of redox-mediator-free Z-scheme CdS/NiCo2O4 photocatalysts with enhanced visible-light driven photocatalytic activity in Cr(VI) reduction and antibiotics degradation

By virtue of their green and environmentally friendly properties, photocatalysis has become one of the most ideal solutions for antibiotic pollution. Herein, a series of direct Z-scheme Zn0.5Cd0.5S/NiCo2O4 photocatalysts have been successfully fabricated. The obtained Zn0.5Cd0.5S/NiCo2O4 photocatalysts displayed outstanding photocatalytic performance for tetracycline hydrochloride (TC-HCl) degradation under the irradiation of a low-energy lamp (white LED lamp, 5 W). Compared to pure Zn0.5Cd0.5S nanoparticles and NiCo2O4 nanosheets, the Zn0.5Cd0.5S/NiCo2O4 photocatalysts exhibited significantly enhanced photocatalytic activity. This pleasantly surprised result can be attributed to the formation of Z-scheme heterojunction, which effectively inhibited the recombination of electron–hole pairs and boosted the transfer efficiency of photoinduced electrons. Moreover, anchoring Zn0.5Cd0.5S nanoparticles on the surface of NiCo2O4 nanosheets can effectively reduce the aggregation of Zn0.5Cd0.5S nanoparticles and thus increase the active site. Furthermore, free radical trapping experiments confirmed that •O2− and h+ radicals play a major role in the photocatalytic process and verified the rationality of the proposed Z-scheme mechanism. Therefore, our study provides a simple strategy for the construction of direct Z-scheme system with outstanding photocatalytic performance.

Highly dispersed Zn0.5Cd0.5S nanoparticles anchored on NiCo2O4 nanosheets as the direct Z-scheme heterojunction for enhanced visible light photocatalysis

By virtue of their unique features, including simplicity, speed and portability, point-of-care testing (POCT) is critical for biochemical analysis in resource-limited environments. However, a single-signal readout cannot fulfil the requirements of accurate quantitative analysis due to interference from environmental factors. Hence, establishing a convenient multimodal assay method based on the concept of POCT detection is urgently desired. Herein, a novel multimode (i.e., photothermal, electrochemical, UV-Vis absorption and fluorescence) sensing strategy based on oxygen-vacancy-rich MnO2 nanosheets decorated with methylene blue (MB) is unveiled for multifunctional detection of ascorbic acid (AA). In this multimode nanosensor (MnO2@MB NSs), MnO2 nanosheets act as a photothermal agent and carrier for MB, showing an ultrasensitive response to AA, which enables photothermal signals turn “on” to “off”, and can be monitored by a thermometer. In the meantime, large amounts of MB are released to the detection solution, resulting in the absorbance, fluorescence and electrochemistry signals turning “off” to “on”. Thus, this nanosensor enables four-signal determination of AA in a supersensitive manner and exhibits a more reliable analysis result. Furthermore, MnO2@MB NSs can be even used to achieve point-of-care testing, greatly improving their application scope. Our strategy opens up a new avenue for the exploration of multistimulus-responsive nanosensors for convenient, stable, and accurate analysis of AA.

1739One Stone with Four Birds: Methylene Blue Decorated Oxygen-Vacancy-Rich MnO2 Nanosheets for Multimode Detection of Ascorbic Acid

Controlled growth of AgI nanoparticles on hollow WO3 hierarchical structures to act as Z-scheme photocatalyst for visible-light photocatalysis

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Fabrication of redox-mediator-free Z-scheme CdS/NiCo2O4 photocatalysts with enhanced visible-light driven photocatalytic activity in Cr(VI) reduction and antibiotics degradation

Highly dispersed Zn0.5Cd0.5S nanoparticles anchored on NiCo2O4 nanosheets as the direct Z-scheme heterojunction for enhanced visible light photocatalysis

1739One Stone with Four Birds: Methylene Blue Decorated Oxygen-Vacancy-Rich MnO2 Nanosheets for Multimode Detection of Ascorbic Acid

Controlled growth of AgI nanoparticles on hollow WO3 hierarchical structures to act as Z-scheme photocatalyst for visible-light photocatalysis